Isotonic and plyometric exercises
These terms combine the prefix "iso" (meaning "same") with "tonic" (strength) and "plio" (more) with "metric" (distance). In "isotonic" exercises the force applied to the muscle does not change (while the length of the muscle decreases or increases) while in "plyometric" exercises the length of the muscle stretches and contracts rapidly to increase the power output of a muscle.
Weight training is primarily an isotonic form of exercise, as the force produced by the muscle to push or pull weighted objects should not change (though in practice the force produced does decrease as muscles fatigue). Any object can be used for weight training, but dumbbells, barbells, and other specialised equipment are normally used because they can be adjusted to specific weights and are easily gripped. Many exercises are not strictly isotonic because the force on the muscle varies as the joint moves through its range of motion. Movements can become easier or harder depending on the angle of muscular force relative to gravity; for example, a standard biceps curl becomes easier as the hand approaches the shoulder as more of the load is taken by the structure of the elbow. Certain machines such as the Nautilus involve special adaptations to keep resistance constant irrespective of the joint angle.
Plyometric exercises exploits the stretch-shortening cycle of muscles to enhance the myotatic (stretch) reflex. This involves rapid alternation of lengthening and shortening of muscle fibers against resistance. The resistance involved is often a weighted object such as a medicine ball or sandbag, but can also be the body itself as in jumping exercises or the body with a weight vest that allows movement with resistance. Plyometrics is used to develop explosive speed, and focuses on maximal power instead of maximal strength by compressing the force of muscular contraction into as short a period as possible, and may be used to improve the effectiveness of a boxer's punch, or to increase the vertical jumping ability of a basketball player. Care must be taken when performing plyometric exercises because they inflict greater stress upon the involved joints and tendons than other forms of exercise.
Isolation exercises versus compound exercises
An isolation exercise is one where the movement is restricted to one joint and one muscle group. For example, the leg extension is an isolation exercise for the quadriceps. Specialized types of equipment are used to ensure that other muscle groups are only minimally involved—they just help the individual maintain a stable posture—and movement occurs only around the knee joint. Most isolation exercises involve machines rather than dumbbells and barbells (free weights), though free weights can be used when combined with special positions and joint bracing.
Compound exercises work several muscle groups at once, and include movement around two or more joints. For example, in the leg press movement occurs around the hip, knee and ankle joints. This exercise is primarily used to develop the quadriceps, but it also involves the hamstrings, glutes and calves. Compound exercises are generally similar to the ways that people naturally push, pull and lift objects, whereas isolation exercises often feel a little unnatural. Compound exercises generally involve dumbbells and barbells (free weights), involving more muscles to stabilize the body and joints as well as move the weight.
Each type of exercise has its uses. Compound exercises build the basic strength that is needed to perform everyday pushing, pulling and lifting activities. Isolation exercises are useful for "rounding out" a routine, by directly exercising muscle groups that cannot be fully exercised in the compound exercises.
The type of exercise performed also depends on the individual's goals. Those who seek to increase their performance in sports would focus mostly on compound exercises, with isolation exercises being used to strengthen just those muscles that are holding the athlete back. Similarly, a powerlifter would focus on the specific compound exercises that are performed at powerlifting competitions. However, those who seek to improve the look of their body without necessarily maximising their strength gains (including bodybuilders) would put more of an emphasis on isolation exercises. Both types of athletes, however, generally make use of both compound and isolation exercises.
Free weights versus weight machines
Exercise balls allow a wider range of free weight exercises to be performed. They are also known as exercise balls, fitness balls, gym balls, sports balls, therapy balls or body balls. They are sometimes confused with medicine balls
Free weights are dumbbells, barbells, and kettlebells. Unlike weight machines, they do not constrain users to specific, fixed movements, and therefore require more effort from the individual's stabilizer muscles. It is often argued that free weight exercises are superior for precisely this reason. As weight machines can go some way toward preventing poor form, they are somewhat safer than free weights for novice trainees. Moreover, since users need not concentrate so much on maintaining good form, they can focus more on the effort they are putting into the exercise. However, most athletes, bodybuilders, and serious fitness enthusiasts prefer to use compound free weight exercises to gain functional strength. However free weights sometimes aren't safe to use without a spotter.
Some free weight exercises can be performed while sitting or lying on an exercise ball. This makes it more difficult to maintain good form, which helps to exercise the deep torso muscles that are important for maintaining posture.
There are a number of weight machines that are commonly found in neighborhood gyms. The Smith machine is a barbell that is constrained to move only vertically upwards and downwards. The cable machine consists of two weight stacks separated by 2.5 metres, with cables running through adjustable pulleys (that can be fixed at any height) to various types of handles. There are also exercise-specific weight machines such as the leg press. A multigym includes a variety of exercise-specific mechanisms in one apparatus.
One limitation of many free weight exercises and exercise machines is that the muscle is working maximally against gravity during only a small portion of the lift. Some exercise-specific machines feature an oval cam (first introduced by Nautilus) which varies the resistance so that the resistance, and the muscle force required, remains constant throughout the full range of motion of the exercise.
Wednesday, March 25, 2009
Safety for Weight training
Weight training is a safe form of exercise when the movements are slow, controlled, and carefully defined. However, as with any form of exercise, improper execution and the failure to take appropriate precautions can result in injury.
Maintaining proper form
When the exercise becomes difficult towards the end of a set, there is a temptation to cheat, i.e. to use poor form to recruit other muscle groups to assist the effort. This may shift the effort to weaker muscles that cannot handle the weight. For example, the squat and the deadlift are used to exercise the largest muscles in the body—the leg and buttock muscles—so they require substantial weight. Beginners are tempted to round their back while performing these exercises. This causes the weaker lower back muscles to support much of the weight, which can result in serious lower back injuries.
To avoid such problems and to ensure training success, weight training exercises must be performed correctly. Standing exercises are performed in a completely erect posture, as though one's back were pressed to a wall, and sitting exercises are performed without slouching. Weights are not lifted with a jerk (which makes the exercise easier, but overstresses muscles and joints). Rather, trainers recommend that the positive phase of the lift take three seconds (counting "one-and-a, two-and-a, three-and-a"), followed by a one second pause and three seconds for the negative phase (lowering the weight).
Stretching and warm-up
The cross trainer can be used to warm up muscles in both the upper and lower body.
Weight trainers commonly spend 5 to 20 minutes warming up their muscles with aerobic exercise before starting a workout. They also stretch muscles after they have been exercised.
Breathing
Breathing shallowly or holding one's breath while working out limits the oxygen supply to the muscles and the brain, decreasing performance and, under extreme stress, risking a black-out or a stroke by aneurysm. Weight trainers are advised to conscientiously "exhale on effort" and to inhale when lowering the weight. This technique ensures that the trainer breathes through the most difficult part of the exercise, where one would reflexively hold one's breath.
Hydration
As with other sports, weight trainers should avoid dehydration throughout the workout by drinking plenty of water, even while not thirsty; thirst is a sign that the body is already dehydrated. Sportspeople are advised to drink about 7 imperial fluid ounces (2.0 dl) every 15 minutes while exercising, and about 80 imperial fluid ounces (2.3 l) throughout the day. Under most circumstances, sports drinks do not offer a physiological benefit over water during weight training.
Insufficient hydration may cause lethargy, soreness or muscle cramps. The urine of well-hydrated persons should be nearly colorless, while an intense yellow color is normally a sign of insufficient hydration.
Straps and belts
A lifting belt is sometimes worn to help support the lower back.
There have been mixed reviews regarding the use of weightlifting belts and other devices, such as lifting straps. Critics claim that they allow the lifter to use more weight than is safe. In addition, the stabilizer muscles in the lower back and gripping muscles in the forearms receive less benefit from the exercises.
Wrist straps (also known as cow ties or lifting straps) are sometimes used to assist in gripping very heavy weights. The straps wrap around the wrist and tuck around the bar or weight being lifted, transferring some of the weight directly to the wrist instead of through the fingers. They are particularly useful for the deadlift. Some lifters avoid using wrist straps in order to develop their grip strength. Wrist straps can allow a lifter initially to use more weight than they might be able to handle safely for an entire set, and can place potentially harmful stress on the bones of the wrist.
Avoiding pain
An exercise should be halted if marked or sudden pain is felt, to prevent further injury. However, not all discomfort indicates injury. Weight training exercises are brief but very intense, and many people are unaccustomed to this level of effort. The expression "no pain, no gain" refers to working through the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort, rather than to willfully ignore extreme pain, which may indicate serious soft tissue injuries.
Discomfort can arise from other factors. Individuals who perform large numbers of repetitions, sets, and exercises for each muscle group may experience a burning sensation in their muscles. Muscle fatigue and soreness, contrary to popular belief, is not caused by lactate buildup but by the acid byproduct generated by glycolosis metabolism and the corresponding drop in pH. These individuals may also experience a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow (the "pump"). True muscle fatigue is experienced as a marked and uncontrollable loss of strength in a muscle, arising from the nervous system (motor unit) rather than from the muscle fibers themselves. Extreme neural fatigue can be experienced as temporary muscle failure. Some weight training programs actively seek temporary muscle failure; evidence to support this type of training is mixed at best. Irrespective of their program, however, most athletes engaged in high-intensity weight training will experience muscle failure from time to time.
Beginners are advised to build up slowly to a weight training programme. Untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others. An injury can result if, in a particular exercise, the primary muscle is stronger than its stabilising muscles. Building up slowly allows muscles time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This can also help to minimise delayed onset muscle soreness. A sudden start to an intense program can cause significant muscular soreness. Unexercised muscles contain cross-linkages that are torn during intense exercise.
Maintaining proper form
When the exercise becomes difficult towards the end of a set, there is a temptation to cheat, i.e. to use poor form to recruit other muscle groups to assist the effort. This may shift the effort to weaker muscles that cannot handle the weight. For example, the squat and the deadlift are used to exercise the largest muscles in the body—the leg and buttock muscles—so they require substantial weight. Beginners are tempted to round their back while performing these exercises. This causes the weaker lower back muscles to support much of the weight, which can result in serious lower back injuries.
To avoid such problems and to ensure training success, weight training exercises must be performed correctly. Standing exercises are performed in a completely erect posture, as though one's back were pressed to a wall, and sitting exercises are performed without slouching. Weights are not lifted with a jerk (which makes the exercise easier, but overstresses muscles and joints). Rather, trainers recommend that the positive phase of the lift take three seconds (counting "one-and-a, two-and-a, three-and-a"), followed by a one second pause and three seconds for the negative phase (lowering the weight).
Stretching and warm-up
The cross trainer can be used to warm up muscles in both the upper and lower body.
Weight trainers commonly spend 5 to 20 minutes warming up their muscles with aerobic exercise before starting a workout. They also stretch muscles after they have been exercised.
Breathing
Breathing shallowly or holding one's breath while working out limits the oxygen supply to the muscles and the brain, decreasing performance and, under extreme stress, risking a black-out or a stroke by aneurysm. Weight trainers are advised to conscientiously "exhale on effort" and to inhale when lowering the weight. This technique ensures that the trainer breathes through the most difficult part of the exercise, where one would reflexively hold one's breath.
Hydration
As with other sports, weight trainers should avoid dehydration throughout the workout by drinking plenty of water, even while not thirsty; thirst is a sign that the body is already dehydrated. Sportspeople are advised to drink about 7 imperial fluid ounces (2.0 dl) every 15 minutes while exercising, and about 80 imperial fluid ounces (2.3 l) throughout the day. Under most circumstances, sports drinks do not offer a physiological benefit over water during weight training.
Insufficient hydration may cause lethargy, soreness or muscle cramps. The urine of well-hydrated persons should be nearly colorless, while an intense yellow color is normally a sign of insufficient hydration.
Straps and belts
A lifting belt is sometimes worn to help support the lower back.
There have been mixed reviews regarding the use of weightlifting belts and other devices, such as lifting straps. Critics claim that they allow the lifter to use more weight than is safe. In addition, the stabilizer muscles in the lower back and gripping muscles in the forearms receive less benefit from the exercises.
Wrist straps (also known as cow ties or lifting straps) are sometimes used to assist in gripping very heavy weights. The straps wrap around the wrist and tuck around the bar or weight being lifted, transferring some of the weight directly to the wrist instead of through the fingers. They are particularly useful for the deadlift. Some lifters avoid using wrist straps in order to develop their grip strength. Wrist straps can allow a lifter initially to use more weight than they might be able to handle safely for an entire set, and can place potentially harmful stress on the bones of the wrist.
Avoiding pain
An exercise should be halted if marked or sudden pain is felt, to prevent further injury. However, not all discomfort indicates injury. Weight training exercises are brief but very intense, and many people are unaccustomed to this level of effort. The expression "no pain, no gain" refers to working through the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort, rather than to willfully ignore extreme pain, which may indicate serious soft tissue injuries.
Discomfort can arise from other factors. Individuals who perform large numbers of repetitions, sets, and exercises for each muscle group may experience a burning sensation in their muscles. Muscle fatigue and soreness, contrary to popular belief, is not caused by lactate buildup but by the acid byproduct generated by glycolosis metabolism and the corresponding drop in pH. These individuals may also experience a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow (the "pump"). True muscle fatigue is experienced as a marked and uncontrollable loss of strength in a muscle, arising from the nervous system (motor unit) rather than from the muscle fibers themselves. Extreme neural fatigue can be experienced as temporary muscle failure. Some weight training programs actively seek temporary muscle failure; evidence to support this type of training is mixed at best. Irrespective of their program, however, most athletes engaged in high-intensity weight training will experience muscle failure from time to time.
Beginners are advised to build up slowly to a weight training programme. Untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others. An injury can result if, in a particular exercise, the primary muscle is stronger than its stabilising muscles. Building up slowly allows muscles time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This can also help to minimise delayed onset muscle soreness. A sudden start to an intense program can cause significant muscular soreness. Unexercised muscles contain cross-linkages that are torn during intense exercise.
Comparison to other types of strength training
The benefits of weight training overall are comparable to most other types of strength training: increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate, and postural support. There are benefits and limitations to weight training as compared to other types of strength training.
Weight training versus resistance training
Resistance training involves the application of elastic or hydraulic resistance to muscle contraction rather than gravity. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the beginning, initiation joint angle of the movement, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass. After this point the overall resistance alters depending on the angle of the joint. In comparison, hydraulic resistance provides a fixed amount of resistance throughout the range of motion, depending on the speed of the movement. Elastic resistance provides the greatest resistance at the end of the motion, when the elastic element is stretched to the greatest extent.
Weight training versus isometric training
Isometric exercise provides a fixed amount of resistance based on the force output of the muscle. This strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some lesser gains in strength also occurring at proximal joint angles. In comparison, weight training strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion the joint is trained in, causing an increase in physical strength from the initiating through to terminating joint angle.
Weight training and bodybuilding
Although weight training is similar to bodybuilding, they have different objectives. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions; they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, most weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Weight trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles and to improve muscular symmetry.
However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many of weight training's principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs. Weight training does allow tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights which can allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, as well as attain specific goals.
Weight training versus resistance training
Resistance training involves the application of elastic or hydraulic resistance to muscle contraction rather than gravity. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the beginning, initiation joint angle of the movement, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass. After this point the overall resistance alters depending on the angle of the joint. In comparison, hydraulic resistance provides a fixed amount of resistance throughout the range of motion, depending on the speed of the movement. Elastic resistance provides the greatest resistance at the end of the motion, when the elastic element is stretched to the greatest extent.
Weight training versus isometric training
Isometric exercise provides a fixed amount of resistance based on the force output of the muscle. This strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some lesser gains in strength also occurring at proximal joint angles. In comparison, weight training strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion the joint is trained in, causing an increase in physical strength from the initiating through to terminating joint angle.
Weight training and bodybuilding
Although weight training is similar to bodybuilding, they have different objectives. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions; they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, most weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Weight trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles and to improve muscular symmetry.
However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many of weight training's principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs. Weight training does allow tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights which can allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, as well as attain specific goals.
Comparison to other types of strength training
The benefits of weight training overall are comparable to most other types of strength training: increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate, and postural support. There are benefits and limitations to weight training as compared to other types of strength training.
Weight training versus resistance training
Resistance training involves the application of elastic or hydraulic resistance to muscle contraction rather than gravity. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the beginning, initiation joint angle of the movement, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass. After this point the overall resistance alters depending on the angle of the joint. In comparison, hydraulic resistance provides a fixed amount of resistance throughout the range of motion, depending on the speed of the movement. Elastic resistance provides the greatest resistance at the end of the motion, when the elastic element is stretched to the greatest extent.
Weight training versus isometric training
Isometric exercise provides a fixed amount of resistance based on the force output of the muscle. This strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some lesser gains in strength also occurring at proximal joint angles. In comparison, weight training strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion the joint is trained in, causing an increase in physical strength from the initiating through to terminating joint angle.
Weight training and bodybuilding
Although weight training is similar to bodybuilding, they have different objectives. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions; they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, most weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Weight trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles and to improve muscular symmetry.
However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many of weight training's principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs. Weight training does allow tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights which can allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, as well as attain specific goals.
Weight training versus resistance training
Resistance training involves the application of elastic or hydraulic resistance to muscle contraction rather than gravity. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the beginning, initiation joint angle of the movement, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass. After this point the overall resistance alters depending on the angle of the joint. In comparison, hydraulic resistance provides a fixed amount of resistance throughout the range of motion, depending on the speed of the movement. Elastic resistance provides the greatest resistance at the end of the motion, when the elastic element is stretched to the greatest extent.
Weight training versus isometric training
Isometric exercise provides a fixed amount of resistance based on the force output of the muscle. This strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some lesser gains in strength also occurring at proximal joint angles. In comparison, weight training strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion the joint is trained in, causing an increase in physical strength from the initiating through to terminating joint angle.
Weight training and bodybuilding
Although weight training is similar to bodybuilding, they have different objectives. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions; they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, most weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Weight trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles and to improve muscular symmetry.
However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many of weight training's principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs. Weight training does allow tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights which can allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, as well as attain specific goals.
Weight training Basic principles
The basic principles of weight training are essentially identical to those of strength training, and involve a manipulation of the number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercise types, and weight moved to cause desired increases in strength, endurance, size, and shape. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises, and weights depends on the aims of the individual performing the exercise; sets with fewer reps can be performed with heavier weights.
In addition to the basic principles of strength training, a further consideration added by weight training is the equipment used. Types of equipment include barbells, dumbbells, pulleys and stacks in the form of weight machines, and the body's own weight in the case of chin-ups and pushups. Different types of weights will give different types of resistance, and often the same absolute weight can have different relative weights depending on the type of equipment used. For example, lifting 10 kilograms using a dumbbell requires significantly more force than moving 10 kilograms on a weight stack due to the use of pulleys.
Weight training also requires the use of 'good form', performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group, and not transferring the weight to different body parts in order to move greater weight (called 'cheating'). Failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or a failure to meet training goals;since the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength.
In addition to the basic principles of strength training, a further consideration added by weight training is the equipment used. Types of equipment include barbells, dumbbells, pulleys and stacks in the form of weight machines, and the body's own weight in the case of chin-ups and pushups. Different types of weights will give different types of resistance, and often the same absolute weight can have different relative weights depending on the type of equipment used. For example, lifting 10 kilograms using a dumbbell requires significantly more force than moving 10 kilograms on a weight stack due to the use of pulleys.
Weight training also requires the use of 'good form', performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group, and not transferring the weight to different body parts in order to move greater weight (called 'cheating'). Failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or a failure to meet training goals;since the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength.
History of weight training
Hippocrates explained the principle behind weight training when he wrote "that which is used develops, and that which is not used wastes away." Progressive resistance training dates back at least to Ancient Greece, when legend has it that wrestler Milo of Croton trained by carrying a newborn calf on his back every day until it was fully grown. Another Greek, the physician Galen, described strength training exercises using the halteres (an early form of dumbbell) in the 2nd century.
Another early device was the Indian club, which came from ancient Persia where it was called the "meels." It subsequently became popular during the 19th century, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell.
The dumbbell was joined by the barbell in the latter half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with sand or lead shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today.
The 1960s saw the gradual introduction of exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Weight training became increasingly popular in the 1980s, following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron, and the subsequent popularity of Arnold Schwarzenegger. Since the late 1990s increasing numbers of women have taken up weight training, influenced by programs like Body for Life; currently nearly one in five U.S. women engages in weight training on a regular basis
Another early device was the Indian club, which came from ancient Persia where it was called the "meels." It subsequently became popular during the 19th century, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell.
The dumbbell was joined by the barbell in the latter half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with sand or lead shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today.
The 1960s saw the gradual introduction of exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Weight training became increasingly popular in the 1980s, following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron, and the subsequent popularity of Arnold Schwarzenegger. Since the late 1990s increasing numbers of women have taken up weight training, influenced by programs like Body for Life; currently nearly one in five U.S. women engages in weight training on a regular basis
Weight training
Weight training is a common type of strength training for developing the strength and size of skeletal muscles. It uses the force of gravity (in the form of weighted bars, dumbbells or weight stacks) to oppose the force generated by muscle through concentric or eccentric contraction. Weight training uses a variety of specialized equipment to target specific muscle groups and types of movement.
Weight training differs from bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting, and strongman, which are sports rather than forms of exercise. Weight training, however, is often part of the athlete's training regimen.
Weight training versus other types of exercise
Strength training is an inclusive term that describes all exercises devoted toward increasing physical strength. Weight training is a type of strength training that uses weights rather than elastic or muscular resistance to increase strength. Endurance training is associated with aerobic exercise while flexibility training is associated with stretching exercise like yoga or pilates. Weight training is often used synonymously of strength training but is actually a specific type within the more inclusive category.
Weight training differs from bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting, and strongman, which are sports rather than forms of exercise. Weight training, however, is often part of the athlete's training regimen.
Weight training versus other types of exercise
Strength training is an inclusive term that describes all exercises devoted toward increasing physical strength. Weight training is a type of strength training that uses weights rather than elastic or muscular resistance to increase strength. Endurance training is associated with aerobic exercise while flexibility training is associated with stretching exercise like yoga or pilates. Weight training is often used synonymously of strength training but is actually a specific type within the more inclusive category.
Resistance training Basic principles
Resistance training is a form of strength training in which each effort is performed against a specific opposing force generated by resistance (i.e. resistance to being pushed, squeezed, stretched or bent). Exercises are isotonic if a body part is moving against the force. Exercises are isometric if a body part is holding still against the force. Resistance exercise is used to develop the strength and size of skeletal muscles. Properly performed, resistance training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being.
The goal of resistance training, according to the American Sports Medicine Institute (ASMI), is to "gradually and progressively overload the musculoskeletal system so it gets stronger." Research shows that regular resistance training will strengthen and tone muscles and increase bone mass. Resistance training should not be confused with weightlifting, powerlifting or bodybuilding, which are competitive sports involving different types of strength training with non-elastic forces such as gravity (weight training or plyometrics) an immovable resistance (isometrics, usually the body's own muscles or a structural feature such as a doorframe). Full range of motion is important in resistance training because muscle overload occurs only at the specific joint angles where the muscle is worked.
Resistance training can be performed using various types of exercise equipment or:
Resistance bands
Exercise machines
Swimming machines
The study “Fat metabolism and acute resistance exercise in trained men” conducted by East Carolina University found that resistance exercise is more beneficial then aerobic exercise for fat loss. The purpose of the study was to see how resistance exercise may contribute to improvements in body composition.
The goal of resistance training, according to the American Sports Medicine Institute (ASMI), is to "gradually and progressively overload the musculoskeletal system so it gets stronger." Research shows that regular resistance training will strengthen and tone muscles and increase bone mass. Resistance training should not be confused with weightlifting, powerlifting or bodybuilding, which are competitive sports involving different types of strength training with non-elastic forces such as gravity (weight training or plyometrics) an immovable resistance (isometrics, usually the body's own muscles or a structural feature such as a doorframe). Full range of motion is important in resistance training because muscle overload occurs only at the specific joint angles where the muscle is worked.
Resistance training can be performed using various types of exercise equipment or:
Resistance bands
Exercise machines
Swimming machines
The study “Fat metabolism and acute resistance exercise in trained men” conducted by East Carolina University found that resistance exercise is more beneficial then aerobic exercise for fat loss. The purpose of the study was to see how resistance exercise may contribute to improvements in body composition.
Resistance training
Resistance training has two different, sometimes confused meanings - a more broad meaning that refers to any training that uses a resistance to the force of muscular contraction (better termed strength training), and elastic or hydraulic resistance, which refers to a specific type of strength training that uses elastic or hydraulic tension to provide this resistance. This article discusses the more limited definition, of elastic/hydraulic resistance training.
Types of resistance training
Hydraulic resistance
Hydraulic Resistance/Equipment, typically makes it possible for a person to perform strength training as well as cardiovascular training at the same time. Hydraulic resistance can involve exercising in water, where each effort is opposed by the viscosity of the water; or utilizing cylinders/equipment where resistance is a function of speed; the faster the movement, the greater the resistance. Unlike stack weights, gravity neither helps nor hinders the workout. It builds speed
Types of resistance training
Hydraulic resistance
Hydraulic Resistance/Equipment, typically makes it possible for a person to perform strength training as well as cardiovascular training at the same time. Hydraulic resistance can involve exercising in water, where each effort is opposed by the viscosity of the water; or utilizing cylinders/equipment where resistance is a function of speed; the faster the movement, the greater the resistance. Unlike stack weights, gravity neither helps nor hinders the workout. It builds speed
Grip strength training methods
Grip strength training requires a different type of training regimen than other muscular training. The reasons are primarily based on the interplay of the tendons and muscles and the lack of "down time" or rest that most people's hands get.
It is generally considered that all aspects of the hand must be exercised to produce a healthy and strong hand. Only working on closing grip will cause an imbalance between closing and opening (antagonist) muscles, and can lead to problems such as tendinitis and carpal tunnel syndrome.
It is generally considered that all aspects of the hand must be exercised to produce a healthy and strong hand. Only working on closing grip will cause an imbalance between closing and opening (antagonist) muscles, and can lead to problems such as tendinitis and carpal tunnel syndrome.
Types of grip
The hand is an amazing human instrument, and can be used to grip objects in several ways. These different ways, and different types of grip strength, are typically quantified based on the way the hand is being used.
The crush grip is what is most commonly thought of as "grip". It involves a handshake-type grip, where the object being gripped rests firmly against the palm and all fingers. A strong crush grip is useful in bone-crushing handshakes or for breaking objects with pressure.
In a pinch grip, the fingers are on one side of an object, and the thumb is on the other. Typically, an object lifted in a pinch grip does not touch the palm. This is generally considered a weaker grip position. The pinch grip is used when grabbing something like a weight plate or lifting a sheet of plywood by the top edge.
A support grip typically involves holding something, such as the handle of a bucket, for a long time. This type of strength is epitomized by the "Farmer's walk", where the bucket is filled with sand or water, and carried over a long distance. A great deal of muscular endurance is necessary to have a good carrying grip.
Normative Data
There has been extensive medical and ergonomic research looking at grip strength. This has led to the generation of normative data Average values exist for both men and women. Averages also exist for different types of grip in different positions.
In medicine
Grip strength is often used in medicine as a specific type of hand strength. The purpose of this testing is diverse, including to diagnose diseases, to evaluate and compare treatments, to document progression of muscle strength, and to provide feedback during the rehabilitation process as a measure indicating the level of hand function. For example, it is used to indicate changes in hand strength after hand surgery or after a rehabilitation program. By asking subjects to maintain a maximum contraction for longer periods, it can be used as a measure of fatigue. It is also able to predict a decline in function in old age. Since the above-mentioned grips involve the action of a large number of different joints and muscle groups, grip strength is not always very sensitive to measure individual muscle groups in medicine. For this purpose, dynamometers have been developed that provide more specific information on individual muscles in the hand such as the Rotterdam Intrinsic Hand Myometer (RIHM).
In sports
Hand grip is an important, though often overlooked, component of strength in sports. However, the grip strength is most often a secondary or auxiliary function of the sport. Sports in which grip strength are included within the secondary focus include the following: climbing, horse racing, judo, brazilian jiu-jitsu, weightlifting, Fencing, and arm wrestling and baseball.
As a separate discipline
From their beginnings as odd performances at fairs and circuses, grip feats have recently gained acceptance as a sport in their own right, with competitions being held with increasing regularity. Events include one-arm deadlift, nail bending, the closing of torsion spring hand grippers, v-bar (vertical bar) lifting, and standardized pinch apparatuses. Other common events may include Rolling Thunder lifts, thickbar deadlifts, and "Blob" lifting.
The major contests are:
Champion of Champions
European Grip Championships
British Grip Championships
Münsterland Grip Challenge
Global Grip Challenge
Loddekopinge Grip Challenge
Meisterhaft Pinzettenherren Pjasjma
Australian Grip Championships
German Grip Championships
Backyard Bastard Bash
Exhibitions and feats of strength
Aside from functional uses of a powerful grip, traditional strength feats such as ripping decks of cards or phonebooks in half experienced renewed popularity after Clayton Edgin posted a video tutorial at an online magazine Heavy Sports.
The crush grip is what is most commonly thought of as "grip". It involves a handshake-type grip, where the object being gripped rests firmly against the palm and all fingers. A strong crush grip is useful in bone-crushing handshakes or for breaking objects with pressure.
In a pinch grip, the fingers are on one side of an object, and the thumb is on the other. Typically, an object lifted in a pinch grip does not touch the palm. This is generally considered a weaker grip position. The pinch grip is used when grabbing something like a weight plate or lifting a sheet of plywood by the top edge.
A support grip typically involves holding something, such as the handle of a bucket, for a long time. This type of strength is epitomized by the "Farmer's walk", where the bucket is filled with sand or water, and carried over a long distance. A great deal of muscular endurance is necessary to have a good carrying grip.
Normative Data
There has been extensive medical and ergonomic research looking at grip strength. This has led to the generation of normative data Average values exist for both men and women. Averages also exist for different types of grip in different positions.
In medicine
Grip strength is often used in medicine as a specific type of hand strength. The purpose of this testing is diverse, including to diagnose diseases, to evaluate and compare treatments, to document progression of muscle strength, and to provide feedback during the rehabilitation process as a measure indicating the level of hand function. For example, it is used to indicate changes in hand strength after hand surgery or after a rehabilitation program. By asking subjects to maintain a maximum contraction for longer periods, it can be used as a measure of fatigue. It is also able to predict a decline in function in old age. Since the above-mentioned grips involve the action of a large number of different joints and muscle groups, grip strength is not always very sensitive to measure individual muscle groups in medicine. For this purpose, dynamometers have been developed that provide more specific information on individual muscles in the hand such as the Rotterdam Intrinsic Hand Myometer (RIHM).
In sports
Hand grip is an important, though often overlooked, component of strength in sports. However, the grip strength is most often a secondary or auxiliary function of the sport. Sports in which grip strength are included within the secondary focus include the following: climbing, horse racing, judo, brazilian jiu-jitsu, weightlifting, Fencing, and arm wrestling and baseball.
As a separate discipline
From their beginnings as odd performances at fairs and circuses, grip feats have recently gained acceptance as a sport in their own right, with competitions being held with increasing regularity. Events include one-arm deadlift, nail bending, the closing of torsion spring hand grippers, v-bar (vertical bar) lifting, and standardized pinch apparatuses. Other common events may include Rolling Thunder lifts, thickbar deadlifts, and "Blob" lifting.
The major contests are:
Champion of Champions
European Grip Championships
British Grip Championships
Münsterland Grip Challenge
Global Grip Challenge
Loddekopinge Grip Challenge
Meisterhaft Pinzettenherren Pjasjma
Australian Grip Championships
German Grip Championships
Backyard Bastard Bash
Exhibitions and feats of strength
Aside from functional uses of a powerful grip, traditional strength feats such as ripping decks of cards or phonebooks in half experienced renewed popularity after Clayton Edgin posted a video tutorial at an online magazine Heavy Sports.
Grip strength
Grip strength is the force applied by the hand to pull on or suspend from objects and is a specific part of hand strength. Optimum-sized objects permit the hand to wrap around a cylindrical shape with a diameter from one to three inches. Stair rails are an example of where shape and diameter are critical for proper grip in case of a fall. Other grip strengths that have been studied are the hammer and other hand tools. In applications of grip strength, the wrist must be in a neutral position to avoid developing cumulative trauma disorders (CTD's).
Grip strength is a general term also used by strength athletes, referring to the muscular power and force that they can generate with their hands. In athletics, it is critical for rock climbers and in competitions such as the World's Strongest Man. Grip strength training is also a major feature in martial arts, and can be useful in various professions where people must work with their hands.
Grip strength is a general term also used by strength athletes, referring to the muscular power and force that they can generate with their hands. In athletics, it is critical for rock climbers and in competitions such as the World's Strongest Man. Grip strength training is also a major feature in martial arts, and can be useful in various professions where people must work with their hands.
triathlon Legendary and well-known events
Thousands of individual triathlons are held around the world each year. A few of these races are legendary and/or favorites of the triathlon community because they have a long history, or because they have particularly grueling courses and race conditions. A few are listed here.
Hawaii Ironman World Championship, Kona, Hawaii. First held in 1978 on Oahu, only five years after the sport of triathlon was founded; it was later moved to Kailua-Kona on the island of Hawaii. The cycling stage of the race covers more than a hundred miles over lava flats on the big island of Hawaii, where mid-day temperatures often reach over 110 °F (43 °C) and cross-winds sometimes blow at 55 MPH (90 km/h). The race is often challenging even to competitors with experience in other iron-distance events.
Nice Triathlon, Nice, France. A race that existed until 2002 when the course was adopted by the WTC as Ironman France. During the 1980s the Nice Long Distance triathlon (Swim 4 km, Bike 120 km, Run 30 km) was, alongside the World Championships in Kona, one of the two important races each year with prize money and media attention. Mark Allen won here 10 consecutive times. The ITU's Long Distance is a Nice-Distance race except a short period from late 2006 to early 2008, in which it was 3 km + 80 km + 20 km.
Escape from Alcatraz, San Francisco, California. This non-standard-length race begins with a 1.5 mile (2.4 km) swim in frigid San Francisco Bay waters from Alcatraz Island to shore, followed by an 18 mile (29 km) bicycle and 8 mile (13 km) run in the extremely hilly terrain of the San Francisco Bay area. The run includes the notorious "Sand Ladder"--a 400-step staircase climb up a beachside cliff.
Wildflower is a Half-Ironman distance race held on or near May 1 at Lake San Antonio in Southern California since 1983. In recent years it has become a highlight on the race-calendar of many professional triathletes. Known for a particularly hilly course, it has expanded now to include three races of different lengths and is one of the largest triathlon events in the world, with over 8,000 athletes attending each year.
Life Time Fitness Triathlon Series. A series of 5 Olympic distance races: The Lifetime Fitness in Minneapolis, the NYC Triathlon in New York City, the Chicago Triathlon, the LA Triathlon in Los Angeles, and the U.S. Open in Dallas. There is a combined $1.5 Million prize purse at stake for the professionals who come from around the world to take part in the series.
Hy-Vee World Cup, Des Moines, Iowa Started in 2007 by the Mid-West grocery store chain. Famous for the richest prize purse ever awarded at a single triathlon ($700,000). Part of the draft-legal ITU World Cup circuit and the only one on USA soil in '07 & '08. Also hosts a sold-out age group race, youth races, and a Junior Development race. Given the honorable distinction of the third and final USA Triathlon Olympic Trials event in 2008.
Survival of the Shawangunks, New Paltz, New York requires participants to transition among the three events a total of seven times over 50.5 miles. Competitors bicycle the first thirty miles and then run to each of three picturesque lakes in the Shawangunk Mountains, carrying their shoes and goggles with them the entire time. Reaching the finish requires a final thousand-foot climb.
Hawaii Ironman World Championship, Kona, Hawaii. First held in 1978 on Oahu, only five years after the sport of triathlon was founded; it was later moved to Kailua-Kona on the island of Hawaii. The cycling stage of the race covers more than a hundred miles over lava flats on the big island of Hawaii, where mid-day temperatures often reach over 110 °F (43 °C) and cross-winds sometimes blow at 55 MPH (90 km/h). The race is often challenging even to competitors with experience in other iron-distance events.
Nice Triathlon, Nice, France. A race that existed until 2002 when the course was adopted by the WTC as Ironman France. During the 1980s the Nice Long Distance triathlon (Swim 4 km, Bike 120 km, Run 30 km) was, alongside the World Championships in Kona, one of the two important races each year with prize money and media attention. Mark Allen won here 10 consecutive times. The ITU's Long Distance is a Nice-Distance race except a short period from late 2006 to early 2008, in which it was 3 km + 80 km + 20 km.
Escape from Alcatraz, San Francisco, California. This non-standard-length race begins with a 1.5 mile (2.4 km) swim in frigid San Francisco Bay waters from Alcatraz Island to shore, followed by an 18 mile (29 km) bicycle and 8 mile (13 km) run in the extremely hilly terrain of the San Francisco Bay area. The run includes the notorious "Sand Ladder"--a 400-step staircase climb up a beachside cliff.
Wildflower is a Half-Ironman distance race held on or near May 1 at Lake San Antonio in Southern California since 1983. In recent years it has become a highlight on the race-calendar of many professional triathletes. Known for a particularly hilly course, it has expanded now to include three races of different lengths and is one of the largest triathlon events in the world, with over 8,000 athletes attending each year.
Life Time Fitness Triathlon Series. A series of 5 Olympic distance races: The Lifetime Fitness in Minneapolis, the NYC Triathlon in New York City, the Chicago Triathlon, the LA Triathlon in Los Angeles, and the U.S. Open in Dallas. There is a combined $1.5 Million prize purse at stake for the professionals who come from around the world to take part in the series.
Hy-Vee World Cup, Des Moines, Iowa Started in 2007 by the Mid-West grocery store chain. Famous for the richest prize purse ever awarded at a single triathlon ($700,000). Part of the draft-legal ITU World Cup circuit and the only one on USA soil in '07 & '08. Also hosts a sold-out age group race, youth races, and a Junior Development race. Given the honorable distinction of the third and final USA Triathlon Olympic Trials event in 2008.
Survival of the Shawangunks, New Paltz, New York requires participants to transition among the three events a total of seven times over 50.5 miles. Competitors bicycle the first thirty miles and then run to each of three picturesque lakes in the Shawangunk Mountains, carrying their shoes and goggles with them the entire time. Reaching the finish requires a final thousand-foot climb.
Cycling & Running
Triathlon cycling, with the exception of Olympic triathlon and ITU World Cup races, is very different from most professional bicycle racing because it does not allow drafting, so racers do not cluster in a peloton. It more closely resembles individual time trial racing. Triathlon bicycles are generally optimized for aerodynamics, having special handlebars called "aero-bars" or "tri-bars", aerodynamic wheels, and other components. Triathlon bikes use a specialized geometry, including a steep seat-tube angle both to improve aerodynamics and to spare muscle groups needed for running (see also triathlon equipment). At the end of the bike segment, triathletes also often cycle with a higher "cadence" (revolutions per minute), which serves in part to keep the muscles loose and flexible for running. It is believed, though, that the primary benefit to cycling in a triathlon is that the strain of the effort is placed disproportionately on the slow twitch muscle fibers, preventing the athlete from accumulating an oxygen debt before the run.
The primary distinguishing feature of running in a triathlon is that it occurs after the athlete has already been exercising in two other disciplines for an extended period of time, so many muscles are already tired. The effect of switching from cycling to running can be profound; first-time triathletes are often astonished at their muscle weakness, maybe caused by lactic acid build up and the bizarre, sometimes painful sensation in their thighs a few hundred yards into the run, and discover that they run at a much slower pace than they are accustomed to in training. Triathletes train for this phenomenon through transition workouts known as "bricks": back-to-back workouts involving two disciplines, most commonly cycling and running.
The primary distinguishing feature of running in a triathlon is that it occurs after the athlete has already been exercising in two other disciplines for an extended period of time, so many muscles are already tired. The effect of switching from cycling to running can be profound; first-time triathletes are often astonished at their muscle weakness, maybe caused by lactic acid build up and the bizarre, sometimes painful sensation in their thighs a few hundred yards into the run, and discover that they run at a much slower pace than they are accustomed to in training. Triathletes train for this phenomenon through transition workouts known as "bricks": back-to-back workouts involving two disciplines, most commonly cycling and running.
Swimming
Triathletes will often use their legs less vigorously and more carefully than other swimmers, conserving their leg muscles for the cycle and run to follow. Many triathletes use altered swim strokes to compensate for turbulent, aerated water and to conserve energy for a long swim. In addition, the majority of triathlons involve open-water (outdoor) swim stages, rather than pools with lane markers. As a result, triathletes in the swim stage must jockey for position, and can gain some advantage by drafting, following a competitor closely to swim in their slipstream. Triathletes will often use "dolphin kicking" and diving to make headway against waves, and body surfing to use a wave's energy for a bit of speed at the end of the swim stage. Also, open-water swims necessitate "sighting": raising the head to look for landmarks or buoys that mark the course. A modified stroke allows the triathlete to lift the head above water to sight without interrupting the swim or wasting energy.
Because open water swim areas are often cold and because wearing a wetsuit provides a competitive advantage, specialized triathlon wetsuits have been developed in a variety of styles to match the conditions of the water. The Springsuit, for example, sleeveless and cut above the knee, was designed for warmer waters, while still providing buoyancy. Wetsuits are only legal in sanctioned events with a water temperature equal to or below 78 degrees Fahrenheit (25.5 degrees Celsius). Some events allow wetsuits regardless of water temperature, and sometimes they are required. Or, in a single event, wetsuits may be allowed for "age groupers" but not for professionals, as the temperature rules differ slightly between the two groups.
Because open water swim areas are often cold and because wearing a wetsuit provides a competitive advantage, specialized triathlon wetsuits have been developed in a variety of styles to match the conditions of the water. The Springsuit, for example, sleeveless and cut above the knee, was designed for warmer waters, while still providing buoyancy. Wetsuits are only legal in sanctioned events with a water temperature equal to or below 78 degrees Fahrenheit (25.5 degrees Celsius). Some events allow wetsuits regardless of water temperature, and sometimes they are required. Or, in a single event, wetsuits may be allowed for "age groupers" but not for professionals, as the temperature rules differ slightly between the two groups.
Triathlon and fitness
Triathletes tend to be spartanly fit, and many amateur athletes choose triathlon specifically for its fitness benefits. Because all three events are endurance sports, nearly all of triathlon training is cardiovascular exercise. In addition, since triathletes must train for three different disciplines, they tend to have more balanced whole-body muscular development than pure cyclists or runners, whose training emphasizes only a subset of their musculature.
Each element of the triathlon is slightly different from those sports if encountered alone. While amateur triathletes who also compete in individual swimming, cycling or running races generally apply the same techniques and philosophy to triathlon, seasoned triathletes and professionals have specialized techniques for each discipline that improve their race as a whole.
Athletes that participate in endurance events spend many hours training for those events and this is true for triathlon as well. Injuries that are incurred from long hours of a single activity are not as common in triathlon as they are in single sport events. The cross training effect that athletes achieve from training for one sport by doing a second activity applies in triathlon training. Additional activities that triathletes perform for a cross training effect are yoga, Pilates and weight training.
Each element of the triathlon is slightly different from those sports if encountered alone. While amateur triathletes who also compete in individual swimming, cycling or running races generally apply the same techniques and philosophy to triathlon, seasoned triathletes and professionals have specialized techniques for each discipline that improve their race as a whole.
Athletes that participate in endurance events spend many hours training for those events and this is true for triathlon as well. Injuries that are incurred from long hours of a single activity are not as common in triathlon as they are in single sport events. The cross training effect that athletes achieve from training for one sport by doing a second activity applies in triathlon training. Additional activities that triathletes perform for a cross training effect are yoga, Pilates and weight training.
Rules of triathlon
Traditionally, triathlon is an individual sport: each athlete is competing against the course and the clock for the best time. As such, athletes are not allowed to receive assistance from anyone else inside or outside the race, with the exception of race-sanctioned aid volunteers who distribute food and water on the course. This also means that team tactics, such as drafting, a cycling tactic in which several riders cluster closely to reduce the air resistance of the group, are usually not allowed.
This has begun to change with the introduction of triathlon into the Olympics. Many Olympic-distance races, including the Olympics themselves and ITU World Cup events, now allow drafting during the cycling stage. This change has sparked extensive debate among the triathlon community, with supporters feeling that it brings triathlon rules closer in line with international cycling rules and practices, and opponents feeling that drafting has the potential to negate gains achieved by an individual in the swim, and gains an individual would have the potential to achieve during the cycling leg. Drafting has become the standard format for professional-level ITU events and the Olympics. However, the majority of amateur events retain the non-drafting format.
Triathlons are timed in five sections: 1) from the start of the swim to the beginning of the first transition (swim time); 2) from the beginning of the first transition to the end of the first transition (T1 time); 3) from the start of the cycling to the end of the cycling leg (cycling time); 4) from the beginning of the second transition to the end of the second transition (T2 time); 5) and finally from the start of the run to the end of the run, at which time the triathlon is completed. Results are usually posted on official websites and will show for each triathlete his/her swim time; cycle time (with transitions included); run time; and total time. Some races also post transition times separately.
Other rules of triathlon vary from race to race and generally involve descriptions of allowable equipment (such as wetsuits, which are allowed in the swimming stage of some races -- generally when the water temperature is below 79 degrees Fahrenheit or 26 °C), and prohibitions against interference between athletes.
One important rule involving the cycle leg is that the competitor must be wearing their bike helmet before the competitor mounts the bike and must remain on until the competitor has dismounted; the competitor may remove their helmet at any time as long as they are not on the bicycle (i.e. while repairing a mechanical problem). Failure to comply with this rule will result in disqualification.
Additionally, while on the bike course, a competitor is required to ride their bicycle at all times. Should a competitor's bike malfunction they can proceed with the race as long as they are doing so with their bicycle in tow.
This has begun to change with the introduction of triathlon into the Olympics. Many Olympic-distance races, including the Olympics themselves and ITU World Cup events, now allow drafting during the cycling stage. This change has sparked extensive debate among the triathlon community, with supporters feeling that it brings triathlon rules closer in line with international cycling rules and practices, and opponents feeling that drafting has the potential to negate gains achieved by an individual in the swim, and gains an individual would have the potential to achieve during the cycling leg. Drafting has become the standard format for professional-level ITU events and the Olympics. However, the majority of amateur events retain the non-drafting format.
Triathlons are timed in five sections: 1) from the start of the swim to the beginning of the first transition (swim time); 2) from the beginning of the first transition to the end of the first transition (T1 time); 3) from the start of the cycling to the end of the cycling leg (cycling time); 4) from the beginning of the second transition to the end of the second transition (T2 time); 5) and finally from the start of the run to the end of the run, at which time the triathlon is completed. Results are usually posted on official websites and will show for each triathlete his/her swim time; cycle time (with transitions included); run time; and total time. Some races also post transition times separately.
Other rules of triathlon vary from race to race and generally involve descriptions of allowable equipment (such as wetsuits, which are allowed in the swimming stage of some races -- generally when the water temperature is below 79 degrees Fahrenheit or 26 °C), and prohibitions against interference between athletes.
One important rule involving the cycle leg is that the competitor must be wearing their bike helmet before the competitor mounts the bike and must remain on until the competitor has dismounted; the competitor may remove their helmet at any time as long as they are not on the bicycle (i.e. while repairing a mechanical problem). Failure to comply with this rule will result in disqualification.
Additionally, while on the bike course, a competitor is required to ride their bicycle at all times. Should a competitor's bike malfunction they can proceed with the race as long as they are doing so with their bicycle in tow.
How a triathlon works
Major races require athletes to register and attend a race briefing the day before the actual race. This race briefing details the course, the rules, and any problems to look out for (road conditions, closures, traffic lights, aid stations). At registration the racers are provided a race number, colored swim cap, and, if the event is being electronically timed, a timing band. Often racers are also given competitor wrist bands that allow them in and out of the transition area or other athlete-only areas. At a major event, such as an Ironman or a Long Course Championship, triathletes are required to set up their bike in the transition area the day before and leave it overnight under guard.
For shorter distances the racers arrive at the venue about an hour (or more) before the race is to begin. They register and receive their swim cap and number, then proceed to set up their spot in the transition area. For most races, competitors have their race number marked on their arms and legs, along with having their age group marked on their calf.
In the transition areas, athletes will generally be provided with a rack to hold their bicycle and a small section of ground space for shoes, clothing, etc. Generally, transition spots are allocated to racers by their competition number, though in some events, athletes choose their spot in the transition area on a first-come, first-served basis. In some races, the bicycle stage does not finish in the same place it begins, so athletes set up two transition areas: one for the swim-to-bike transition, and one for the bike-to-run transition.
Racers are generally categorized into separate professional and amateur categories. Amateurs, who make up the large majority of triathletes, are often referred to as "age groupers" since they are typically further classified by sex and age. One feature that has helped to boost the popularity of such a complex, time-intensive sport is the opportunity to compete against others of one's own gender and age group. The age groups are defined in five or ten year intervals.
In some triathlons, amateur athletes may have the option to compete against others in heavier-weight divisions. "Clydesdale" athletes are generally those men over 200 pounds, while "Athena" athletes are generally women over 150 pounds. These weight based divisions are not officially sanctioned in any of the professional or Olympic events.[citation needed]
As in most marathons and other competitive endurance sport events, there is typically a lower age limit, though many races have been organized to allow children and teens to compete in their own categories.
After setting up their transition areas, athletes don their swim gear and head to the swim area (usually a lake, river, or ocean) for the race start. Depending on the water temperature, swimmers may be permitted to wear a wetsuit - triathlon specific wetsuits are now common. Depending on the type and size of the race, there may be any of the following methods implemented to start the race. Mass starts, traditional in full distance events, see all the athletes enter the water at a single start signal. In wave start events, smaller groups of athletes begin the race every few minutes. An athlete's wave is usually determined either by age group or by predicted swim time. Wave starts are more common in shorter races where a large number of amateur athletes are competing. Another option is individual time trial starts, where athletes enter the water one at a time, usually 3 to 5 seconds apart.
The swim leg usually proceeds around a series of marked buoys and exits the water near the transition area. Racers run out of the water, enter the transition area, and attempt to change from their swim gear into their cycling gear as rapidly as possible. In some races, tents were provided for changing clothes. However, competition and pressure for time has led to the development of specialized triathlon clothing that is adequate for both swimming and cycling, meaning many racers' transitions consist of little more than removing wetsuit and goggles and pulling on a helmet and cycling shoes. In some cases, racers leave shoes attached to their bicycle pedals and slip their feet into them while riding. Some triathletes don't wear socks, decreasing their time in transition even more.
The cycling stage proceeds around a marked course, nearly always on public roads. In many cases, especially smaller triathlons, the roads are not closed to automobiles, though marshals are often present to help control traffic. Typically, the cycling stage finishes back at the same transition area. Racers enter the transition area, rack their bicycles, and quickly change into running shoes before heading out for the final stage. The running stage, also typically held on public roads, usually ends at a separate finish line near the transition area.
In most races, "aid stations" located on the bike and run courses provide water and energy drinks to the athletes as they pass by. Aid stations at longer events will often provide various types of food as well, including such items as energy bars, gels, fruit, cookies, and ice.
Once the triathletes have completed the event, there is typically another aid station for them to get water, fruit, cookies, and other post-race goodies. At the end of most larger or longer events, the provisions and post-race celebrations may be more elaborate - ranging from ice cream and professional massage tents to cookouts and barbecues.
For shorter distances the racers arrive at the venue about an hour (or more) before the race is to begin. They register and receive their swim cap and number, then proceed to set up their spot in the transition area. For most races, competitors have their race number marked on their arms and legs, along with having their age group marked on their calf.
In the transition areas, athletes will generally be provided with a rack to hold their bicycle and a small section of ground space for shoes, clothing, etc. Generally, transition spots are allocated to racers by their competition number, though in some events, athletes choose their spot in the transition area on a first-come, first-served basis. In some races, the bicycle stage does not finish in the same place it begins, so athletes set up two transition areas: one for the swim-to-bike transition, and one for the bike-to-run transition.
Racers are generally categorized into separate professional and amateur categories. Amateurs, who make up the large majority of triathletes, are often referred to as "age groupers" since they are typically further classified by sex and age. One feature that has helped to boost the popularity of such a complex, time-intensive sport is the opportunity to compete against others of one's own gender and age group. The age groups are defined in five or ten year intervals.
In some triathlons, amateur athletes may have the option to compete against others in heavier-weight divisions. "Clydesdale" athletes are generally those men over 200 pounds, while "Athena" athletes are generally women over 150 pounds. These weight based divisions are not officially sanctioned in any of the professional or Olympic events.[citation needed]
As in most marathons and other competitive endurance sport events, there is typically a lower age limit, though many races have been organized to allow children and teens to compete in their own categories.
After setting up their transition areas, athletes don their swim gear and head to the swim area (usually a lake, river, or ocean) for the race start. Depending on the water temperature, swimmers may be permitted to wear a wetsuit - triathlon specific wetsuits are now common. Depending on the type and size of the race, there may be any of the following methods implemented to start the race. Mass starts, traditional in full distance events, see all the athletes enter the water at a single start signal. In wave start events, smaller groups of athletes begin the race every few minutes. An athlete's wave is usually determined either by age group or by predicted swim time. Wave starts are more common in shorter races where a large number of amateur athletes are competing. Another option is individual time trial starts, where athletes enter the water one at a time, usually 3 to 5 seconds apart.
The swim leg usually proceeds around a series of marked buoys and exits the water near the transition area. Racers run out of the water, enter the transition area, and attempt to change from their swim gear into their cycling gear as rapidly as possible. In some races, tents were provided for changing clothes. However, competition and pressure for time has led to the development of specialized triathlon clothing that is adequate for both swimming and cycling, meaning many racers' transitions consist of little more than removing wetsuit and goggles and pulling on a helmet and cycling shoes. In some cases, racers leave shoes attached to their bicycle pedals and slip their feet into them while riding. Some triathletes don't wear socks, decreasing their time in transition even more.
The cycling stage proceeds around a marked course, nearly always on public roads. In many cases, especially smaller triathlons, the roads are not closed to automobiles, though marshals are often present to help control traffic. Typically, the cycling stage finishes back at the same transition area. Racers enter the transition area, rack their bicycles, and quickly change into running shoes before heading out for the final stage. The running stage, also typically held on public roads, usually ends at a separate finish line near the transition area.
In most races, "aid stations" located on the bike and run courses provide water and energy drinks to the athletes as they pass by. Aid stations at longer events will often provide various types of food as well, including such items as energy bars, gels, fruit, cookies, and ice.
Once the triathletes have completed the event, there is typically another aid station for them to get water, fruit, cookies, and other post-race goodies. At the end of most larger or longer events, the provisions and post-race celebrations may be more elaborate - ranging from ice cream and professional massage tents to cookouts and barbecues.
triathlon Organizations
Today, a number of triathlon events over varying distances are held around the world. The standard "Olympic Distance" of 1.5/40/10 km was created by long time triathlon race director Jim Curl in the mid-1980s, after he and partner Carl Thomas successfully produced the U.S. Triathlon Series (USTS) between 1982 and 1997. The Hawaii Ironman Triathlon now serves as the Ironman world championship, but the entity that owns the race, the World Triathlon Corporation (WTC), hosts other triathlons around the world that are also called Ironmans. Long-distance multi-sport events organized by groups other than the WTC may not officially be called "Ironman" or "Iron" races. Such triathlons may be described as Full distance triathlon or "Half distance", but the "Ironman" and "Iron" labels are the official property of the WTC.
The International Triathlon Union (ITU) was founded in 1989 as the international governing body of the sport, with the chief goal being to put triathlon on the Olympic program. The ITU has never officially sanctioned the Ironman Triathlon. Some believe that the Hawaii Ironman should be recognized as the official world championship for the sport as a whole, and as such should be sanctioned by the ITU. For its part, however, the ITU has expressed little interest in supporting longer distance triathlons, choosing to retain its focus instead on the shorter races geared toward the Olympics.
The International Triathlon Union (ITU) was founded in 1989 as the international governing body of the sport, with the chief goal being to put triathlon on the Olympic program. The ITU has never officially sanctioned the Ironman Triathlon. Some believe that the Hawaii Ironman should be recognized as the official world championship for the sport as a whole, and as such should be sanctioned by the ITU. For its part, however, the ITU has expressed little interest in supporting longer distance triathlons, choosing to retain its focus instead on the shorter races geared toward the Olympics.
Modern triathlon
The first known swim/bike/run triathlon was held at Mission Bay, San Diego, California on September 25, 1974. The race was conceived and directed by Jack Johnstone and Don Shanahan, members of the San Diego Track Club, and was sponsored by the track club. 46 brave participants entered this never-before held event. It is well-documented and was not based on the French events.
Ironman
The first modern long-distance triathlon event was the Hawaiian Ironman Triathlon. It included a 2.4 mile (3.86 km; 77 lap) swim, a 112 mi (180.2 km) bike ride, and a 26.2 mi (42.195 km) run. It was conceived during the awards ceremony for the 1977 Oahu Perimeter Relay (a running race for 5-person teams).
Among the participants were numerous representatives of both the Mid-Pacific Road Runners and the Waikiki Swim Club, whose members had long been debating which athletes were more fit: runners or swimmers. On this occasion, U.S. Navy Commander John Collins pointed out that a recent article in Sports Illustrated magazine had declared that Eddy Merckx, the great Belgian cyclist, had the highest recorded "maximum oxygen uptake" of any athlete ever measured, so perhaps cyclists were more fit than anyone. Collins and his wife, Judy, had taken part in the triathlons staged in 1974 and 1975 by the San Diego Track Club in and around Mission Bay, California, as well as the Optimist Sports Fiesta Triathlon in Coronado, California in 1975.
A number of the other military athletes in attendance were also familiar with the San Diego races, so they understood the concept when Collins suggested that the debate should be settled through a race combining the three existing long-distance competitions already on the island: the Waikiki Roughwater Swim (2.4 mi/3.862 km), the Around-Oahu Bike Race (115 miles (185 km); originally a two-day event) and the Honolulu Marathon (26.219 mi/42.195 km). No one present had ever done the bike race so they did not realize it was a two-day, not one-day, event. Collins calculated that, by shaving 3 miles (5 km) off the course and riding counter-clockwise around the island, the bike leg could start at the finish of the Waikiki Rough Water and end at the Aloha Tower, the traditional start of the Honolulu Marathon. Prior to racing, each athlete received three sheets of paper listing a few rules and a course description. Handwritten on the last page was this exhortation:
“
Swim 2.4 miles! Bike 112 miles! Run 26.2 miles! Brag for the rest of your life!
”
— Commander Collins, (1978)
With a nod to a local runner who was notorious for his demanding workouts, Collins said:
“
Whoever finishes first, we'll call him the Ironman.
”
— Commander Collins, (1978)
Of the fifteen men to start off in the early morning on February 18, 1978, twelve completed the race and the world's first Ironman, Gordon Haller, completed it in 11 hours, 46 minutes, and 58 seconds.
Ironman
The first modern long-distance triathlon event was the Hawaiian Ironman Triathlon. It included a 2.4 mile (3.86 km; 77 lap) swim, a 112 mi (180.2 km) bike ride, and a 26.2 mi (42.195 km) run. It was conceived during the awards ceremony for the 1977 Oahu Perimeter Relay (a running race for 5-person teams).
Among the participants were numerous representatives of both the Mid-Pacific Road Runners and the Waikiki Swim Club, whose members had long been debating which athletes were more fit: runners or swimmers. On this occasion, U.S. Navy Commander John Collins pointed out that a recent article in Sports Illustrated magazine had declared that Eddy Merckx, the great Belgian cyclist, had the highest recorded "maximum oxygen uptake" of any athlete ever measured, so perhaps cyclists were more fit than anyone. Collins and his wife, Judy, had taken part in the triathlons staged in 1974 and 1975 by the San Diego Track Club in and around Mission Bay, California, as well as the Optimist Sports Fiesta Triathlon in Coronado, California in 1975.
A number of the other military athletes in attendance were also familiar with the San Diego races, so they understood the concept when Collins suggested that the debate should be settled through a race combining the three existing long-distance competitions already on the island: the Waikiki Roughwater Swim (2.4 mi/3.862 km), the Around-Oahu Bike Race (115 miles (185 km); originally a two-day event) and the Honolulu Marathon (26.219 mi/42.195 km). No one present had ever done the bike race so they did not realize it was a two-day, not one-day, event. Collins calculated that, by shaving 3 miles (5 km) off the course and riding counter-clockwise around the island, the bike leg could start at the finish of the Waikiki Rough Water and end at the Aloha Tower, the traditional start of the Honolulu Marathon. Prior to racing, each athlete received three sheets of paper listing a few rules and a course description. Handwritten on the last page was this exhortation:
“
Swim 2.4 miles! Bike 112 miles! Run 26.2 miles! Brag for the rest of your life!
”
— Commander Collins, (1978)
With a nod to a local runner who was notorious for his demanding workouts, Collins said:
“
Whoever finishes first, we'll call him the Ironman.
”
— Commander Collins, (1978)
Of the fifteen men to start off in the early morning on February 18, 1978, twelve completed the race and the world's first Ironman, Gordon Haller, completed it in 11 hours, 46 minutes, and 58 seconds.
Triathlon
A triathlon is an endurance sports event consisting of running, biking, and swimming over various distances. As a result, proficiency in swimming, cycling, or running alone is not sufficient to guarantee a triathlon athlete a competitive time, trained triathletes have learned to race each stage in a way that preserves their energy and endurance for subsequent stages. In most modern triathlons, these events are placed back-to-back in immediate sequence and a competitor's official time includes the time required to "transition" between the individual legs of the race, including any time necessary for changing clothes and shoes.
History
According to triathlon historian and author Scott Tinley, the origin of triathlon is anecdotally attributed to a race in France during the 1920s-1930s that was called variously "Les trois sports", "La Course des Débrouillards", and "La course des Touche à Tout". Nowadays, this race is held every year in France near Joinville-le-Pont, in Meulan and Poissy. In 1920, the French newspaper "L´Auto" reported on a competition called "Les Trois Sports" with a 3 km run, 12 km bike, and a swim across the channel Marne. Those three parts were done without any break. There are also articles in French newspapers about a race in Marseille in 1927. There is a 1934 article about "Les Trois Sports" (the three sports) in the city of La Rochelle, a race with: (1) a channel crossing (c. 200 m), (2) a bike competition (10 km) around the harbor of La Rochelle and the parc Laleu, and (3) a run (1200 m) in the stadium André-Barbeau. Its also known to be one of the worlds most dangerous sports
History
According to triathlon historian and author Scott Tinley, the origin of triathlon is anecdotally attributed to a race in France during the 1920s-1930s that was called variously "Les trois sports", "La Course des Débrouillards", and "La course des Touche à Tout". Nowadays, this race is held every year in France near Joinville-le-Pont, in Meulan and Poissy. In 1920, the French newspaper "L´Auto" reported on a competition called "Les Trois Sports" with a 3 km run, 12 km bike, and a swim across the channel Marne. Those three parts were done without any break. There are also articles in French newspapers about a race in Marseille in 1927. There is a 1934 article about "Les Trois Sports" (the three sports) in the city of La Rochelle, a race with: (1) a channel crossing (c. 200 m), (2) a bike competition (10 km) around the harbor of La Rochelle and the parc Laleu, and (3) a run (1200 m) in the stadium André-Barbeau. Its also known to be one of the worlds most dangerous sports
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
Boxing Training Equipment
Jump Rope: Used to improve footwork and agility, and for aerobic fitness. also helps maintain stamina
Focus mitts: Padded targets worn on the trainer's hands for the boxer to strike and practice combinations.
The Heavy Bag: Used to teach young boxers where exactly to hit an opponent and for all kinds of boxers to practice their combinations.
The Speed Bag: Used to improve hand speed and hand-eye coordination.
The Double End Bag: Also known as the floor-ceiling bag, crazy bag, or the reflex bag, the double end bag is hooked up by two thin elastic ropes to the gym's ceiling and floor, and because of that, it moves around easily, giving the boxer good equipment for target practice and timing.
The Maize Bag: Used to practice head movement and close-range combinations, such as uppercut/hook combinations.
The Slam man: Used to practice combinations of punches on a human shaped bag
The Medicine Ball: Used for plyometric training - often used when training in pairs (quick throwing/passing of the ball) or with a trainer.
The Mirror: Used by boxers to do shadow boxing.
The Boxing Ring: When boxers are training, used to stage practice or competition bouts.
Focus mitts: Padded targets worn on the trainer's hands for the boxer to strike and practice combinations.
The Heavy Bag: Used to teach young boxers where exactly to hit an opponent and for all kinds of boxers to practice their combinations.
The Speed Bag: Used to improve hand speed and hand-eye coordination.
The Double End Bag: Also known as the floor-ceiling bag, crazy bag, or the reflex bag, the double end bag is hooked up by two thin elastic ropes to the gym's ceiling and floor, and because of that, it moves around easily, giving the boxer good equipment for target practice and timing.
The Maize Bag: Used to practice head movement and close-range combinations, such as uppercut/hook combinations.
The Slam man: Used to practice combinations of punches on a human shaped bag
The Medicine Ball: Used for plyometric training - often used when training in pairs (quick throwing/passing of the ball) or with a trainer.
The Mirror: Used by boxers to do shadow boxing.
The Boxing Ring: When boxers are training, used to stage practice or competition bouts.
Boxing Safety Equipment
Hand wraps: Protect the knuckles and wrists when training and sparring.
Speed Bag Gloves: Created to prevent the hands from getting hurt while hitting the speed bag, these gloves are the lightest gloves, yet offer more protection than hand wraps alone.
Heavy Bag Gloves: Created to prevent the hands from getting hurt while hitting the heavy bag, and are insulated for your knuckles to reducing the risk of wrist, hand, and knuckle injury while hitting the Heavy bag. Normally bag gloves weigh anywhere from 10-12 ounces, but some prefer to train in both the 14 and 16 ounce varieties.
Sparring Gloves: Contrary to popular belief, these gloves were designed to protect the boxer's hands, not the opponent's head. Generally weigh much more than professional fight gloves (16 oz.) in order to cushion blows and accustom boxers to added weights.
Headgear: Used to protect boxers from soft tissue damage, (bruises, cuts, etc), during sparring - also used in competition in amateur boxing. Head gear offers no protection from the effects of hard punches (stunning, knockdowns, KOs). It is important that boxers are aware of this otherwise headgear can produce a false sense of security leading a boxer to take punches rather than defend himself or herself.
Groin Guard: Protects the groin against low punches
Mouthpiece: (Sometimes known as gumshield, mouthguard). Used to protect the inside of the mouth and lips from getting cut by the teeth when a hard punch to the face is received. The mouthguard also helps to lock the top and bottom jaws together preventing painful damage to the jaw joint capsule when a boxer is struck by a hook. Important that it is worn in both sparring and competition.
Speed Bag Gloves: Created to prevent the hands from getting hurt while hitting the speed bag, these gloves are the lightest gloves, yet offer more protection than hand wraps alone.
Heavy Bag Gloves: Created to prevent the hands from getting hurt while hitting the heavy bag, and are insulated for your knuckles to reducing the risk of wrist, hand, and knuckle injury while hitting the Heavy bag. Normally bag gloves weigh anywhere from 10-12 ounces, but some prefer to train in both the 14 and 16 ounce varieties.
Sparring Gloves: Contrary to popular belief, these gloves were designed to protect the boxer's hands, not the opponent's head. Generally weigh much more than professional fight gloves (16 oz.) in order to cushion blows and accustom boxers to added weights.
Headgear: Used to protect boxers from soft tissue damage, (bruises, cuts, etc), during sparring - also used in competition in amateur boxing. Head gear offers no protection from the effects of hard punches (stunning, knockdowns, KOs). It is important that boxers are aware of this otherwise headgear can produce a false sense of security leading a boxer to take punches rather than defend himself or herself.
Groin Guard: Protects the groin against low punches
Mouthpiece: (Sometimes known as gumshield, mouthguard). Used to protect the inside of the mouth and lips from getting cut by the teeth when a hard punch to the face is received. The mouthguard also helps to lock the top and bottom jaws together preventing painful damage to the jaw joint capsule when a boxer is struck by a hook. Important that it is worn in both sparring and competition.
Boxing Weight & Sparring
Boxing, like several other fighting sports, categorizes its competitors into weight classes. Some fighters try to take advantage of this by dieting before weigh-in so that they can be bumped down a weight class. In extreme cases, a fighter may forego solid food before the official weigh-in ceremony, and eat a lot afterward to compensate. In some very extreme cases, boxers have been forced to stop eating solid food up to three days before the weigh-in ceremony, in order to make weight for the fight. Sometimes, if a boxer doesn't make the weight agreed for on the first weight-in, he or she might go to a sauna or to jog with a jacket to sweat and lose the extra pounds, however this is mainly water that the body holds.
A boxer will generally try to have the maximum weight possible within the Boxing weight classes (s)he is fighting in, as a good boxer will be able to use his weight to his advantage.
Sparring
High quality sparring is the best method to train in boxing. Sparring is "practice fighting" with the aim of training skills and fitness, not to determine a winner. Sparring should always involve use of a gumshield, head-guard and groin-guard. Sparring gloves are often more padded than gloves used in actual bouts. Sparring partners sometimes agree to practice particular types of punches or defense moves to focus their training.
Body Sparring refers to sparring where only hits to the body are allowed, not to the head. This is often used to reduce the risk of injury or for inexperienced boxers starting out in the sport
A boxer will generally try to have the maximum weight possible within the Boxing weight classes (s)he is fighting in, as a good boxer will be able to use his weight to his advantage.
Sparring
High quality sparring is the best method to train in boxing. Sparring is "practice fighting" with the aim of training skills and fitness, not to determine a winner. Sparring should always involve use of a gumshield, head-guard and groin-guard. Sparring gloves are often more padded than gloves used in actual bouts. Sparring partners sometimes agree to practice particular types of punches or defense moves to focus their training.
Body Sparring refers to sparring where only hits to the body are allowed, not to the head. This is often used to reduce the risk of injury or for inexperienced boxers starting out in the sport
Boxing training
Boxing training is the training method that boxers use in order to get more fit for their sport. This training method is often cited by medical doctors, boxing trainers, and writers as one of the most spartan forms of sports training.
A boxer's training depends largely on the point in their career at which she or he is situated. If the boxer is just a beginner, a minimal training routine might consist of learning how to hit the heavy bag, the speed bag, and the double end bag (a small bag with a cord on top and bottom connecting it to the floor and ceiling) as well as doing shadowboxing in front of a mirror, skipping, calisthenics and jogging every day, as well as an occasional practice bout inside the ring (sparring). Most beginning boxers will spend most of their early careers conditioning and establishing the fundamentals.
For the amateur or professional boxer preparing for a competition or bout, however, training is much more stringent. This could include getting up at 5 am to jog, flying to a far away place to get isolated during 2 or more months before the fight, dieting, doing the same gym routine as a beginner, only that twice every day, and getting to the city hosting the fight two weeks before the fight to get used to the location's climate. Boxing is widely considered one of the most physically demanding sports in the world.
While fighters often go sightseeing in the places they go to for fights, they usually prefer to leave most sightseeing activities to the day after the fight, where they usually still have one full day free before returning home. They prefer to wait until then, because in the days before the fight they want to keep training to stay in good shape and make sure they will have the right weight during the weigh-in.
A boxer's training depends largely on the point in their career at which she or he is situated. If the boxer is just a beginner, a minimal training routine might consist of learning how to hit the heavy bag, the speed bag, and the double end bag (a small bag with a cord on top and bottom connecting it to the floor and ceiling) as well as doing shadowboxing in front of a mirror, skipping, calisthenics and jogging every day, as well as an occasional practice bout inside the ring (sparring). Most beginning boxers will spend most of their early careers conditioning and establishing the fundamentals.
For the amateur or professional boxer preparing for a competition or bout, however, training is much more stringent. This could include getting up at 5 am to jog, flying to a far away place to get isolated during 2 or more months before the fight, dieting, doing the same gym routine as a beginner, only that twice every day, and getting to the city hosting the fight two weeks before the fight to get used to the location's climate. Boxing is widely considered one of the most physically demanding sports in the world.
While fighters often go sightseeing in the places they go to for fights, they usually prefer to leave most sightseeing activities to the day after the fight, where they usually still have one full day free before returning home. They prefer to wait until then, because in the days before the fight they want to keep training to stay in good shape and make sure they will have the right weight during the weigh-in.
Altitude training Mechanism
An increase in red blood cell mass allows more oxygen to be supplied to the muscles allowing higher performance. Increases in red blood cell mass are stimulated by an increase in erythropoietin (EPO). The body naturally produces EPO to regulate red blood cell mass. Synthetic EPO also exists. Injections of synthetic EPO and blood doping are illegal in athletic competition because they cause an increase in red blood cells beyond the individual athlete's natural limits. This increase, unlike the increase caused by altitude training, can be dangerous to an athlete's health as the blood may become too thick and cause heart failure (see polycythemia). The natural secretion of EPO by the human kidneys can be increased by altitude training, but the body has limits on the amount of natural EPO that it will secrete, thus avoiding the harmful side effects of the illegal doping procedures.
Scientific studies[citation needed] have shown that altitude training can produce increases in speed, strength, endurance, and recovery. Opponents of altitude training argue that an athlete's red blood cell concentration returns to normal levels within days of returning to sea level and that it is impossible to train at the same intensity that one could at sea level, reducing the training effect and wasting training time due to altitude sickness. Altitude simulation systems have enabled protocols that do not suffer from such compromises, and can be utilized closer to competition if necessary. Some devices would be considered portable.
A 2005 study showed that although the boosted VO2 max had returned to normal 15 days after the conclusion of an 18-day Live High Train Low protocol, the submaximal performance at ventilatory threshold was enhanced upon initial return to sea-level, and was even greater 15 days later.
Numerous other responses to altitude training have also been identified, including angiogenesis, glucose transport, glycolysis, and pH regulation, each of which may partially explain improved endurance performance independent of a larger number of red blood cells. Furthermore, exercising at altitude has been shown to cause muscular adjustments of selected gene transcripts, and improvement of mitochondrial properties in skeletal muscle.
In Finland, a scientist named Heikki Rusko has designed a "high-altitude house." The air inside the house, which is situated at sea level, is at normal pressure but modified to a low concentration of oxygen, about 15.3% (below the 20.9% at sea level), the same concentration as that at the altitudes often used for altitude training. Athletes live and sleep inside the house but perform their training outside (at normal oxygen concentrations at 20.9%). Rusko's results show improvements of EPO and red-cell levels. His technology has been commercialized and is being used by thousands of competitive athletes in cycling, triathlon, olympic endurance sports, professional football, basketball, hockey, soccer, and many other sports that can take advantage of the improvements in strength, speed, endurance, and recovery.
Scientific studies[citation needed] have shown that altitude training can produce increases in speed, strength, endurance, and recovery. Opponents of altitude training argue that an athlete's red blood cell concentration returns to normal levels within days of returning to sea level and that it is impossible to train at the same intensity that one could at sea level, reducing the training effect and wasting training time due to altitude sickness. Altitude simulation systems have enabled protocols that do not suffer from such compromises, and can be utilized closer to competition if necessary. Some devices would be considered portable.
A 2005 study showed that although the boosted VO2 max had returned to normal 15 days after the conclusion of an 18-day Live High Train Low protocol, the submaximal performance at ventilatory threshold was enhanced upon initial return to sea-level, and was even greater 15 days later.
Numerous other responses to altitude training have also been identified, including angiogenesis, glucose transport, glycolysis, and pH regulation, each of which may partially explain improved endurance performance independent of a larger number of red blood cells. Furthermore, exercising at altitude has been shown to cause muscular adjustments of selected gene transcripts, and improvement of mitochondrial properties in skeletal muscle.
In Finland, a scientist named Heikki Rusko has designed a "high-altitude house." The air inside the house, which is situated at sea level, is at normal pressure but modified to a low concentration of oxygen, about 15.3% (below the 20.9% at sea level), the same concentration as that at the altitudes often used for altitude training. Athletes live and sleep inside the house but perform their training outside (at normal oxygen concentrations at 20.9%). Rusko's results show improvements of EPO and red-cell levels. His technology has been commercialized and is being used by thousands of competitive athletes in cycling, triathlon, olympic endurance sports, professional football, basketball, hockey, soccer, and many other sports that can take advantage of the improvements in strength, speed, endurance, and recovery.
Altitude training
Altitude training traditionally referred to as altitude camp, is the practice by some endurance athletes of training for several weeks at high altitude, preferably over 2,500 m (8,000 ft) above sea level, though more commonly at a lower altitude due to the lack of availability of a suitable location. At this altitude the air still contains approximately 20.9% oxygen, but the barometric pressure and thus the partial pressure of oxygen is reduced. More common nowadays is the use of an altitude simulation tent, altitude simulation room, or mask-based hypoxicator system where the barometric pressure is kept the same, but the oxygen content is reduced which also reduces the partial pressure of oxygen. Such devices have enabled different altitude training techniques including Live High, Train Low, or the practice of merely performing occasional exercise sessions at altitude.
Depending very much on the protocols used, the body may adapt to the relative lack of oxygen hypoxia in one or more of a number ways such as increasing the mass of red blood cells and hemoglobin, and non-hematolological responses. Proponents claim that when such athletes travel to competitions at lower altitudes they will still have a higher concentration of red blood cells for 10-14 days, and this gives them a competitive advantage. Some athletes live permanently at high altitude, only returning to sea level to compete, but their training may suffer due to less available oxygen for workouts.
Depending very much on the protocols used, the body may adapt to the relative lack of oxygen hypoxia in one or more of a number ways such as increasing the mass of red blood cells and hemoglobin, and non-hematolological responses. Proponents claim that when such athletes travel to competitions at lower altitudes they will still have a higher concentration of red blood cells for 10-14 days, and this gives them a competitive advantage. Some athletes live permanently at high altitude, only returning to sea level to compete, but their training may suffer due to less available oxygen for workouts.
Sports training
Sports training refers to specialized strategies and methods of exercise used in various sports to develop athletes and prepare them for performing in sporting events.
Sports training methods
Besides conventional exercise methods, various training methods used by athletes include:
Altitude training
Boxing training
Brick workouts
Complex training
Continuous training
Cross training
Endurance training
Grip strength training
Interval training
Long Slow Distance
Pilates
Strength training
Resistance training
Weight training
Training to failure
Sports training methods
Besides conventional exercise methods, various training methods used by athletes include:
Altitude training
Boxing training
Brick workouts
Complex training
Continuous training
Cross training
Endurance training
Grip strength training
Interval training
Long Slow Distance
Pilates
Strength training
Resistance training
Weight training
Training to failure
Injury Treatment
Sports injuries can be treated and managed by using the P.R.I.C.E.R... DR. ABC and T.O.T.A.P.S regimes:
P - Protect
R - Rest
I - Ice
C - Compression
E - Elevation
R - Referral
D - Danger
R - Response
A - Airway
B - Breathing
C - Circulation
T - Talk
O - Observe
T - Touch
A - Active movement
P - Passive movement
S - Skills test
The inflammatory stage typically lasts around 5 days and all treatment during this time is designed to address the cardinal signs of inflammation – pain, swelling, redness, heat and a loss of function.
Compression sportswear is becoming very popular with both professional and amateur athletes. These garments are thought to both reduce the risk of muscle injury and speed up muscle recovery.
P - Protect
R - Rest
I - Ice
C - Compression
E - Elevation
R - Referral
D - Danger
R - Response
A - Airway
B - Breathing
C - Circulation
T - Talk
O - Observe
T - Touch
A - Active movement
P - Passive movement
S - Skills test
The inflammatory stage typically lasts around 5 days and all treatment during this time is designed to address the cardinal signs of inflammation – pain, swelling, redness, heat and a loss of function.
Compression sportswear is becoming very popular with both professional and amateur athletes. These garments are thought to both reduce the risk of muscle injury and speed up muscle recovery.
Why athletes warm up
Athletes not only warm up to physically prepare their bodies for training or competition but also to mentally warm themselves up. Warm ups are a crucial part of performance. If completed correctly they enable the body to perform at its peak performing ability at the current time. There are three different types of warm ups; gradual increase of physical activity to raise the pulse (Eg. cycling), a joint mobility exercise, stretching and a sport related activity (Eg. dribbling for basketball). A warm up should be specific to the task required to perform in order to activate the correct energy systems and prepare the correct muscles. There are many beneficial effects from warm ups including; • Increased heart rate. This enables oxygen in the blood to travel faster meaning the muscles fatigue slower, also, the synovial fluid between the joints is produced more to reduce friction in the joints, the capillaries dilate and it lets more oxygen travel in the blood. • Higher temperature in the muscles. This decreases the thickness of the blood-letting the oxygen travel to different parts of the body quicker, it also decreases the viscosity within the muscle, removes lactic acid, lets the muscles fibres have greater extensibility and elasticity and an increase in force and contraction of muscles.
Types of warm-up
Ballistic Stretches: Ballistic Stretches (involving bouncing or jerking) are purported to help extend limbs more during exercise to allow an individual to be more agile and flexible. However this type of stretching can cause injury and is not generally recommended.
Static Stretches: Flexing the muscles to help prevent injury and allow greater flexibility and agility. Note that some sources discourage static stretching as muscles are more prone to damage if stretched while cold.
Types of warm-up
Ballistic Stretches: Ballistic Stretches (involving bouncing or jerking) are purported to help extend limbs more during exercise to allow an individual to be more agile and flexible. However this type of stretching can cause injury and is not generally recommended.
Static Stretches: Flexing the muscles to help prevent injury and allow greater flexibility and agility. Note that some sources discourage static stretching as muscles are more prone to damage if stretched while cold.
Why athletes warm up
Athletes not only warm up to physically prepare their bodies for training or competition but also to mentally warm themselves up. Warm ups are a crucial part of performance. If completed correctly they enable the body to perform at its peak performing ability at the current time. There are three different types of warm ups; gradual increase of physical activity to raise the pulse (Eg. cycling), a joint mobility exercise, stretching and a sport related activity (Eg. dribbling for basketball). A warm up should be specific to the task required to perform in order to activate the correct energy systems and prepare the correct muscles. There are many beneficial effects from warm ups including; • Increased heart rate. This enables oxygen in the blood to travel faster meaning the muscles fatigue slower, also, the synovial fluid between the joints is produced more to reduce friction in the joints, the capillaries dilate and it lets more oxygen travel in the blood. • Higher temperature in the muscles. This decreases the thickness of the blood-letting the oxygen travel to different parts of the body quicker, it also decreases the viscosity within the muscle, removes lactic acid, lets the muscles fibres have greater extensibility and elasticity and an increase in force and contraction of muscles.
Warm up Benefits
A warm-up will improve the effectiveness of training and should be done before every training session. This is fundamental to a safe practice.
Direct physical effects:
Release of adrenaline
Increased heart rate
Enables oxygen in the blood to travel with greater speed
Increased production of synovial fluid located between the joints to reduce friction
Allows joints to move more efficiently
Dilation of capillaries
Enables oxygen in the blood to travel at a higher volume
Increase of temperature in the muscles
Decreased viscosity of blood
Enables oxygen in the blood to travel with greater speed
Facilitates enzyme activity
Encourages the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin
Decreased viscosity within the muscle
Greater extensibility and elasticity of muscle fibres
Increased force and speed of contraction
Increase of muscle metabolism
Supply of energy through breakdown of glycogen
Increase in speed of nerve impulse conduction.
A comprehensive warm-up programme has been found to decrease injuries in soccer
Direct physical effects:
Release of adrenaline
Increased heart rate
Enables oxygen in the blood to travel with greater speed
Increased production of synovial fluid located between the joints to reduce friction
Allows joints to move more efficiently
Dilation of capillaries
Enables oxygen in the blood to travel at a higher volume
Increase of temperature in the muscles
Decreased viscosity of blood
Enables oxygen in the blood to travel with greater speed
Facilitates enzyme activity
Encourages the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin
Decreased viscosity within the muscle
Greater extensibility and elasticity of muscle fibres
Increased force and speed of contraction
Increase of muscle metabolism
Supply of energy through breakdown of glycogen
Increase in speed of nerve impulse conduction.
A comprehensive warm-up programme has been found to decrease injuries in soccer
Warming up
A warm-up is usually performed before participating in technical sports or exercising. A warm-up generally consists of a gradual increase in intensity in physical activity (pulse raiser), a joint mobility exercise, stretching and a sport related activity. For example, before running or playing an intense sport one might slowly jog to warm muscles and increase heart rate. It is important that warm ups should be specific to the exercise that will follow, which means that exercises (of warm up) should prepare the muscles to be used and to activate the energy systems that are required for that particular activity. The risks and benefits of combining stretching with warming up are mixed and in some cases disputed. Warming up prepares the body mentally & physically.
Mechanism
All of these traumatic injuries cause damage to the cells that make up the soft tissues. The dead and damaged cells release chemicals, which initiate an inflammatory response. Small blood vessels are damaged and opened up, producing bleeding within the tissue. In the body’s normal reaction, a small blood clot is formed in order to stop this bleeding and from this clot special cells (called fibroblasts) begin the healing process by laying down scar tissue.
The inflammatory stage is therefore the first phase of healing. However, too much of an inflammatory response in the early stage can mean that the healing process takes longer and a return to activity is delayed. The sports injury treatments are intended to minimize the inflammatory phase of an injury, so that the overall healing process is accelerated.
Prevention
A comprehensive warm-up programme has been found to decrease injuries in soccer
The inflammatory stage is therefore the first phase of healing. However, too much of an inflammatory response in the early stage can mean that the healing process takes longer and a return to activity is delayed. The sports injury treatments are intended to minimize the inflammatory phase of an injury, so that the overall healing process is accelerated.
Prevention
A comprehensive warm-up programme has been found to decrease injuries in soccer
Classification of sports injuries
Sports injuries can be broadly classified as either traumatic or overuse injuries. Traumatic injuries account for most injuries in contact sports such as Football, Rugby, Australian rules football, Gaelic football and American football because of the dynamic and high collision nature of these sports. These injuries range from bruises and muscle strains, to fractures and head injuries.
A bruise or contusion is damage to small blood vessels which causes bleeding within the tissues. A muscle strain is a small tear of muscle fibers and a ligament sprain is a small tear of ligament tissue. The body’s response to these sports injuries is the same in the initial five day period immediately following the traumatic incident - inflammation.
Signs and symptoms
Inflammation is characterized by pain, localized swelling, heat, redness and a loss of function
A bruise or contusion is damage to small blood vessels which causes bleeding within the tissues. A muscle strain is a small tear of muscle fibers and a ligament sprain is a small tear of ligament tissue. The body’s response to these sports injuries is the same in the initial five day period immediately following the traumatic incident - inflammation.
Signs and symptoms
Inflammation is characterized by pain, localized swelling, heat, redness and a loss of function
Sports injury
Sports injuries are injuries that occur to athletes in major sporting events. In many cases, these types of injuries are due to overuse of a part of the body when participating in a certain activity. For example, runner's knee is a painful condition generally associated with running, while tennis elbow is a form of repetitive stress injury at the elbow, although it does not often occur with tennis players. Other types of injuries can be caused by a hard contact with something. This can often cause a broken bone or torn ligament or tendon
Injuries are a common occurrence in professional sports and most teams have a staff of Athletic Trainers and close connections to the medical community. Controversy has arisen at times when teams have made decisions that could threaten a players long-term health for short term gain.
Injuries are a common occurrence in professional sports and most teams have a staff of Athletic Trainers and close connections to the medical community. Controversy has arisen at times when teams have made decisions that could threaten a players long-term health for short term gain.
Viscoelasticity & Nonlinear theories
Viscoelasticity is readily evident in many soft tissues, where there is energy dissipation, or hysteresis, between the loading and unloading of the tissue during mechanical tests. Some soft tissues can be preconditioned by repetitive cyclic loading to the extent where the stress-strain curves for the loading and unloading portions of the tests nearly overlap. The most commonly used model for viscoelasticity is the Quasilinear Viscoelasticity theory (QLV). In addition, soft tissues exhibit other viscoelastic properties, including creep, stress relaxation, and preconditioning.
Hooke's law is linear, but many, if not most problems in biomechanics, involve highly nonlinear behavior, particularly for soft tissues. Proteins such as collagen and elastin, for example, exhibit such a behavior. Some common material models include the Neo-Hookean behavior, often used for modeling elastin, and the famous Fung-elastic exponential model. Non linear phenomena in the biomechanics of soft tissue arise not only from the material properties but also from the very large strains (100% and more) that are characteristic of many problems in soft tissues.
Hooke's law is linear, but many, if not most problems in biomechanics, involve highly nonlinear behavior, particularly for soft tissues. Proteins such as collagen and elastin, for example, exhibit such a behavior. Some common material models include the Neo-Hookean behavior, often used for modeling elastin, and the famous Fung-elastic exponential model. Non linear phenomena in the biomechanics of soft tissue arise not only from the material properties but also from the very large strains (100% and more) that are characteristic of many problems in soft tissues.
Soft tissues
Soft tissues such as tendon, ligament and cartilage are combinations of matrix proteins and fluid. In each of these tissues the main strength bearing element is collagen, although the amount and type of collagen varies according to the function each tissue must perform. Elastin is also a major load-bearing constituent within skin, the vasculature, and connective tissues. The function of tendons is to connect muscle with bone and is subjected to tensile loads. Tendons must be strong to facilitate movement of the body while at the same time remaining compliant to prevent damage to the muscle tissues. Ligaments connect bone to bone and therefore are stiffer than tendons but are relatively close in their tensile strength. Cartilage, on the other hand, is primarily loaded in compression and acts as a cushion in the joints to distribute loads between bones. The compressive strength of cartilage is derived mainly from collagen as in tendons and ligaments, however because collagen is comparable to a "wet noodle" it must be supported by cross-links of glycosaminoglycans that also attract water and create a nearly incompressible tissue capable of supporting compressive loads.
Recently, research is growing on the biomechanics of other types of soft tissues such as skin and internal organs. This interest is spurred by the need for realism in the development of medical simulation.
Recently, research is growing on the biomechanics of other types of soft tissues such as skin and internal organs. This interest is spurred by the need for realism in the development of medical simulation.
Bones & Muscle
Bones are anisotropic but are approximately transversely isotropic. In other words, bones are stronger along one axis than across that axis, and are approximately the same strength no matter how they are rotated around that axis.
The stress-strain relations of bones can be modeled using Hooke's law, in which they are related by elastic moduli, e.g. Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio or the Lamé parameters. The constitutive matrix, a fourth order tensor, depends on the isotropy of the bone.
σij = Cijklεkl .
There are three main types of muscles:
Skeletal muscle (striated): Unlike cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle can develop a sustained condition known as tetiny through high frequency stimulation, resulting in overlapping twitches and a phenomenon known as wave summation. At a sufficiently high frequency, tetany occurs, and the contracticle force appears constant through time. This allows skeletal muscle to develop a wide variety of forces. This muscle type can be voluntary controlled. Hill's Model is the most popular model used to study muscle.
Cardiac muscle (striated): Cardiomyocytes are a highly specialized cell type. These involuntarily contracted cells are located in the heart wall and operate in concert to develop synchronized beats. This is attributable to a refractory period between twitches.
Smooth muscle (smooth - lacking striations): The stomach, vasculature, and most of the digestive tract are largely composed of smooth muscle. This muscle type is involuntary and is controlled by the enteric nervous system.
The stress-strain relations of bones can be modeled using Hooke's law, in which they are related by elastic moduli, e.g. Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio or the Lamé parameters. The constitutive matrix, a fourth order tensor, depends on the isotropy of the bone.
σij = Cijklεkl .
There are three main types of muscles:
Skeletal muscle (striated): Unlike cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle can develop a sustained condition known as tetiny through high frequency stimulation, resulting in overlapping twitches and a phenomenon known as wave summation. At a sufficiently high frequency, tetany occurs, and the contracticle force appears constant through time. This allows skeletal muscle to develop a wide variety of forces. This muscle type can be voluntary controlled. Hill's Model is the most popular model used to study muscle.
Cardiac muscle (striated): Cardiomyocytes are a highly specialized cell type. These involuntarily contracted cells are located in the heart wall and operate in concert to develop synchronized beats. This is attributable to a refractory period between twitches.
Smooth muscle (smooth - lacking striations): The stomach, vasculature, and most of the digestive tract are largely composed of smooth muscle. This muscle type is involuntary and is controlled by the enteric nervous system.
Blood Circulation
Under most circumstances, blood flow can be modeled by the Navier-Stokes equations. Whole blood can often be assumed to be an incompressible Newtonian fluid. However, this assumption fails when considering flows within arterioles. At this scale, the effects of individual red blood cells becomes significant, and whole blood can no longer be modeled as a continuum. When the diameter of the blood vessel is slightly larger than the diameter of the red blood cell the Fahraeus–Lindquist effect occurs and there is a decrease in wall shear stress. However, as the diameter of the blood vessel decreases further, the red blood cells have to squeeze through the vessel and often can only pass in single file. In this case, the inverse Fahraeus–Lindquist effect occurs and the wall shear stress increases.
Continuum mechanics
It is often appropriate to model living tissues as continuous media. For example, at the tissue level, the arterial wall can be modeled as a continuum. This assumption breaks down when the length scales of interest approach the order of the micro structural details of the material. The basic postulates of continuum mechanics are conservation of linear and angular momentum, conservation of mass, conservation of energy, and the entropy inequality. Solids are usually modeled using "reference" or "Lagrangian" coordinates, whereas fluids are often modeled using "spatial" or "Eulerian" coordinates. Using these postulates and some assumptions regarding the particular problem at hand, a set of equilibrium equations can be established. The kinematics and constitutive relations are also needed to model a continuum.
Second and fourth order tensors are crucial in representing many quantities in electromechanical. In practice, however, the full tensor form of a fourth-order constitutive matrix is rarely used. Instead, simplifications such as isotropy, transverse isotropy, and incompressibility reduce the number of independent components. Commonly-used second-order tensors include the Cauchy stress tensor, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, the deformation gradient tensor, and the Green strain tensor. A reader of the mechanic's literature would be well-advised to note precisely the definitions of the various tensors which are being used in a particular work.
Second and fourth order tensors are crucial in representing many quantities in electromechanical. In practice, however, the full tensor form of a fourth-order constitutive matrix is rarely used. Instead, simplifications such as isotropy, transverse isotropy, and incompressibility reduce the number of independent components. Commonly-used second-order tensors include the Cauchy stress tensor, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, the deformation gradient tensor, and the Green strain tensor. A reader of the mechanic's literature would be well-advised to note precisely the definitions of the various tensors which are being used in a particular work.
Biomechanics Applications
The study of biomechanics ranges from the inner workings of a cell to the movement and development of limbs, to the mechanical properties of soft tissue, and bones. As we develop a greater understanding of the physiological behavior of living tissues, researchers are able to advance the field of tissue engineering, as well as develop improved treatments for a wide array of pathologies.
Biomechanics as a sports science, kinesiology, applies the laws of mechanics and physics to human performance in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in athletic events through modeling, simulation, stimulation, gesticulation, mastication and measurement
Biomechanics as a sports science, kinesiology, applies the laws of mechanics and physics to human performance in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in athletic events through modeling, simulation, stimulation, gesticulation, mastication and measurement
Biomechanics
Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to living organisms. This includes bioengineering, the research and analysis of the mechanics of living organisms and the application of engineering principles to and from biological systems. This research and analysis can be carried forth on multiple levels, from the molecular, wherein biomaterials such as collagen and elastin are considered, all the way up to the tissue and organ level. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics can supply correct approximations on each level, but precise details demand the use of continuum mechanics.
Aristotle wrote the first book on biomechanics, De Motu Animalium, or On the Movement of Animals. He not only saw animals' bodies as mechanical systems, but pursued questions such as the physiological difference between imagining performing an action and actually doing it. Some simple examples of biomechanics research include the investigation of the forces that act on limbs, the aerodynamics of bird and insect flight, the hydrodynamics of swimming in fish, and locomotion in general across all forms of life, from individual cells to whole organisms. The biomechanics of human beings is a core part of kinesiology.
The application of biomechanical principles to plants and plant organs has developed into the sister field of Plant biomechanics. The many strands of plant biomechanics are described in a text book on the subject by Karl Niklas Plant Biomechanics: An Engineering Approach to Plant Form and Function.
Applied mechanics, most notably thermodynamics and continuum mechanics, and mechanical engineering disciplines such as fluid mechanics and solid mechanics, play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics. By applying the laws and concepts of physics, biomechanical mechanisms and structures can be simulated and studied.
Relevant mathematical tools include linear algebra, differential equations, vector and tensor calculus, numerics and computational techniques such as the finite element method.
The study of biomaterials is of crucial importance to biomechanics. For example, the various tissues within the body's organs, such as skin, bone, and arteries each possess unique material properties. The passive mechanical response of a particular tissue can be attributed to characteristics of the various proteins, such as elastin and collagen, living cells, ground substances such as proteoglycans, and the orientations of fibers within the tissue. For example, if human skin were largely composed of a protein other than collagen, many of its mechanical properties, such as its elastic modulus, would be different.
It has been shown that applied loads and deformations can affect the properties of living tissue. There is much research in the field of growth and remodeling as a response to applied loads. For example, the effects of elevated blood pressure on the mechanics of the arterial wall, the behavior of cardiomyocytes within a heart with a cardiac infarct, and bone growth in response to exercise, and the acclimative growth of plants in response to wind movement, have been widely regarded as instances in which living tissue is remodelled as a direct consequence of applied loads.
Chemistry, molecular biology, and cell biology have much to offer in the way of explaining the active and passive properties of living tissues. For example, in muscle contractions, the binding of myosin to actin is based on a biochemical reaction involving calcium ions and ATP.
Aristotle wrote the first book on biomechanics, De Motu Animalium, or On the Movement of Animals. He not only saw animals' bodies as mechanical systems, but pursued questions such as the physiological difference between imagining performing an action and actually doing it. Some simple examples of biomechanics research include the investigation of the forces that act on limbs, the aerodynamics of bird and insect flight, the hydrodynamics of swimming in fish, and locomotion in general across all forms of life, from individual cells to whole organisms. The biomechanics of human beings is a core part of kinesiology.
The application of biomechanical principles to plants and plant organs has developed into the sister field of Plant biomechanics. The many strands of plant biomechanics are described in a text book on the subject by Karl Niklas Plant Biomechanics: An Engineering Approach to Plant Form and Function.
Applied mechanics, most notably thermodynamics and continuum mechanics, and mechanical engineering disciplines such as fluid mechanics and solid mechanics, play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics. By applying the laws and concepts of physics, biomechanical mechanisms and structures can be simulated and studied.
Relevant mathematical tools include linear algebra, differential equations, vector and tensor calculus, numerics and computational techniques such as the finite element method.
The study of biomaterials is of crucial importance to biomechanics. For example, the various tissues within the body's organs, such as skin, bone, and arteries each possess unique material properties. The passive mechanical response of a particular tissue can be attributed to characteristics of the various proteins, such as elastin and collagen, living cells, ground substances such as proteoglycans, and the orientations of fibers within the tissue. For example, if human skin were largely composed of a protein other than collagen, many of its mechanical properties, such as its elastic modulus, would be different.
It has been shown that applied loads and deformations can affect the properties of living tissue. There is much research in the field of growth and remodeling as a response to applied loads. For example, the effects of elevated blood pressure on the mechanics of the arterial wall, the behavior of cardiomyocytes within a heart with a cardiac infarct, and bone growth in response to exercise, and the acclimative growth of plants in response to wind movement, have been widely regarded as instances in which living tissue is remodelled as a direct consequence of applied loads.
Chemistry, molecular biology, and cell biology have much to offer in the way of explaining the active and passive properties of living tissues. For example, in muscle contractions, the binding of myosin to actin is based on a biochemical reaction involving calcium ions and ATP.
Sport Psychology terminology
Cohesion – Group cohesion refers to the extent to which a team or group shares a sense of shared task or social bond
Imagery – Refers to 'imagined' sensations, for example visual imagery is known as 'visualization'
Attention Focus – Being able to block everything out, e.g., a crowd.
Motivation – There are two types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, meaning inner motivation, e.g., self accomplishment, and extrinsic motivation, meaning outer motivation, e.g., money or awards.
Internal Monologue - Maintaining positive thoughts during competition by keeping a running conversation going in one's mind
Criticism - A tenet of motivational theory that is necessary to improve performance. The delivery is imperative as criticism can either better performance or drastically reduce it. There are three types of criticism- Destructive, Self, and Constructive. The best utilization of constructive criticism is through the sandwich approach. In using the sandwich approach, you would first a compliment, then offer directions and critical feedback, and then follow up with another compliment.
Imagery – Refers to 'imagined' sensations, for example visual imagery is known as 'visualization'
Attention Focus – Being able to block everything out, e.g., a crowd.
Motivation – There are two types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, meaning inner motivation, e.g., self accomplishment, and extrinsic motivation, meaning outer motivation, e.g., money or awards.
Internal Monologue - Maintaining positive thoughts during competition by keeping a running conversation going in one's mind
Criticism - A tenet of motivational theory that is necessary to improve performance. The delivery is imperative as criticism can either better performance or drastically reduce it. There are three types of criticism- Destructive, Self, and Constructive. The best utilization of constructive criticism is through the sandwich approach. In using the sandwich approach, you would first a compliment, then offer directions and critical feedback, and then follow up with another compliment.
Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology (2000-Present)
Today, sport and exercise psychologists have begun to research and provide information in the ways that psychological well-being and vigorous physical activity are related. This idea of psychophysiology, monitoring brain activity during exercise has aided in this research. Also, sport psychologists are beginning to consider exercise to be a therapeutic addition to healthy mental adjustment.
Just recently have sport psychologists begun to be recognized for the valuable contributions they make in assisting athletes and their coaches in improving performance during competitive situations, as well as understanding how physical exercise may contribute to the psychological well-being of non-athletes. Many can benefit from sport psychologists: athletes who are trying to improve their performance, injured athletes who are looking for motivation, individuals looking to overcome the pressure of competition, and young children involved in youth sports as well as their parents. Special focus is geared towards psychological assessment of athletes. Assessment can be both, focused on selection of athletes and the team set up of rosters as well as on professional guidance and counseling of single athletes.
Just recently have sport psychologists begun to be recognized for the valuable contributions they make in assisting athletes and their coaches in improving performance during competitive situations, as well as understanding how physical exercise may contribute to the psychological well-being of non-athletes. Many can benefit from sport psychologists: athletes who are trying to improve their performance, injured athletes who are looking for motivation, individuals looking to overcome the pressure of competition, and young children involved in youth sports as well as their parents. Special focus is geared towards psychological assessment of athletes. Assessment can be both, focused on selection of athletes and the team set up of rosters as well as on professional guidance and counseling of single athletes.
Multidisciplinary Science and Practice in Sport and Exercise Psychology (1978-2000)
This era was the era of major growth and development in sport psychology. This growth was due to the ongoing acceptance and respect of the general public towards this area of study. This was also the time where a definitive line was drawn seperating sport psychology from other psychologically related exercise and sport science specializations. This era saw the publishing of numerous journals and books to accompany the subject of sport psychology. Training in the field took a more professional approach, rules and regulations were introduced to ensure not just anyone could administer sport psychology.
1979: Journal of Sport Psychology (now called Sport and Exercise Psychology) is established.
1980: The U.S. Olympic Commitee develops Sport Psychology Advisory Board.
1984: World wide coverage of Olympic Games emphasizes sport psychology
1985: The U.S. Olympic Commitee hires first full-time sport psychologist.
1986: The first applied scholarly journal. The Sport Psychologist. is established.
1986: The Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) is established.
1989: Journal of Applied Sport Psychology begins.
1991: AAASP establishes the "certified consultant" designation.
1979: Journal of Sport Psychology (now called Sport and Exercise Psychology) is established.
1980: The U.S. Olympic Commitee develops Sport Psychology Advisory Board.
1984: World wide coverage of Olympic Games emphasizes sport psychology
1985: The U.S. Olympic Commitee hires first full-time sport psychologist.
1986: The first applied scholarly journal. The Sport Psychologist. is established.
1986: The Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) is established.
1989: Journal of Applied Sport Psychology begins.
1991: AAASP establishes the "certified consultant" designation.
The Establishment of Academic Sports Psychology (1966-1977)
This era saw physical education become an academic discipline, and sport psychology became a seperate comoponent of physical education, distinct from motor learning. Motor learning specialist focused on the development of motor skills and on conditions of practice, feedback and timing. On the other hand Sport psychologists studied how psychological factors such as personality, self-esteem, and anxiety influence motor skill performance.
1966: A group of sport psychologists met in Chicago to form the North American Society of Sport Psychology and Physical Activity (NASPSPA).
1966: Clinical psychologists Bruce Olgilvie and Thomas Tutko write Problem Athletes and How to Handle Them and begin to consult with athletes and teams.
1967: B. Cratty of UCLA writes Psychology of Physical Activity.
1967: First Annual North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) conference is held.
1974: Proceedings of NASPSPA conference are published for the first time.
1966: A group of sport psychologists met in Chicago to form the North American Society of Sport Psychology and Physical Activity (NASPSPA).
1966: Clinical psychologists Bruce Olgilvie and Thomas Tutko write Problem Athletes and How to Handle Them and begin to consult with athletes and teams.
1967: B. Cratty of UCLA writes Psychology of Physical Activity.
1967: First Annual North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) conference is held.
1974: Proceedings of NASPSPA conference are published for the first time.
Preparation for the future (1939-1965)
This period consists of the development of the scientific aspect of the sport psychology field, this was largely done by Franklin Henry at the University of California. Henry devoted his career to the study of the psychological aspects of sport and motor skill aquisition. Henry also devoted a large portion of his career to training and educating other enthusiastic physical educators who were to later become university professors and systematic researchers. Other investigators in this period include Warren Johnson and Arthur Slatter-Hammel who helped lay the groundowrk for future study of sport and leisure.
1983: Franklin Henry Assumes position in Department of Physical Education at the university of California, Berkeley, and establishes psychology of physical activity graduate programme.
1949: Warren Johnson assesses precompetitive emotions of athletes.
1951 John Lawther writes Psychology of Coaching.
1965 First World Congress of Sport Psychology is held in Rome.
1965: The International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) was formed by Dr. Ferruccio Antonelli of Italy.
1983: Franklin Henry Assumes position in Department of Physical Education at the university of California, Berkeley, and establishes psychology of physical activity graduate programme.
1949: Warren Johnson assesses precompetitive emotions of athletes.
1951 John Lawther writes Psychology of Coaching.
1965 First World Congress of Sport Psychology is held in Rome.
1965: The International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) was formed by Dr. Ferruccio Antonelli of Italy.
The Griffith Era (1921-1938)
Coleman Griffith was the first North American to devote such a significant portion of his career to sport psychology. Griffith focused on the factors effecting athletic performance such as: Reaction time, mental awareness, muscular tension and relaxation. For this commitment Griffith is know regarded as the father of American Sport psychology. Griffith a University of Illinois psychologist founded his own sports laboratory in 1925 and wrote two classic sports psychology books.
Griffith founded his own sports psychology laboratory but it was not the first. The privelage of founding the world's first sport psychology laboratory went to German Carl Diem. Diem an influential historian opened his sport psychology laboratory in 1920 at the Deutsche Sporthochschule in Berlin Germany. Followed five years later by A.Z. Puni who opened a sport psychology laboratory at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad and in the same year Coleman Griffith opened the first sport psychology laboratory in North America
1920: The world's first sport psychology laboratory is established by Carl Diem in Berlin Germany.
1921-1931: Griffith publishes 25 research articles about sport psychology.
1925: A.Z. Puni establishes a sport psychology laboratory at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad. The University of Illinois research-in-athletics laboratory is established: Griffith is appointed director.
1926: Griffith publishes Psychology of Coaching
1928: Griffith publishes Psychology of Athletics.
Griffith founded his own sports psychology laboratory but it was not the first. The privelage of founding the world's first sport psychology laboratory went to German Carl Diem. Diem an influential historian opened his sport psychology laboratory in 1920 at the Deutsche Sporthochschule in Berlin Germany. Followed five years later by A.Z. Puni who opened a sport psychology laboratory at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad and in the same year Coleman Griffith opened the first sport psychology laboratory in North America
1920: The world's first sport psychology laboratory is established by Carl Diem in Berlin Germany.
1921-1931: Griffith publishes 25 research articles about sport psychology.
1925: A.Z. Puni establishes a sport psychology laboratory at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad. The University of Illinois research-in-athletics laboratory is established: Griffith is appointed director.
1926: Griffith publishes Psychology of Coaching
1928: Griffith publishes Psychology of Athletics.
The Early Years (1895-1920)
1897: Norman Triplett a psychologist from Indiana University conducts the first social psychology and sport psychology experiment. Triplett studied the effects that others had on cyclists. His conclusions were clear that cyclists cycle faster when in groups rather than riding solo. To test this furthur Triplett conducted an experiment with children reeling in fishing lines. He found that like the cyclists the children reeled their lines in faster when other children were present.
1899: E.W. Scripture of Yale describes personality traits that he feels can grow via sport participation
1903: G.T.W. Patrick discusses the psychology of play
1914: R. Cummins assesses reaction time, attention, skills and ablities as they relate to sport.
1918: As a student, Coleman Griffith begins conducting informal studies of football and basketball players at the University of Illinois.
1899: E.W. Scripture of Yale describes personality traits that he feels can grow via sport participation
1903: G.T.W. Patrick discusses the psychology of play
1914: R. Cummins assesses reaction time, attention, skills and ablities as they relate to sport.
1918: As a student, Coleman Griffith begins conducting informal studies of football and basketball players at the University of Illinois.
History of Sport Psychology
The history of sport psychology dates back to the late 1800s and from there has grown in to a scientific phenomenom to enhance the performance of individuals in the area of sport. The history of sport psychology falls into six preiods, they are; Period 1: The Early years (1895-1920), Period 2: The Griffith Era (1921-1938), Period 3: Preparation for the Future (1939-1965), Period 4: the Establishment of Academic Sport psychology (1966-1977), Period 5: Multidsciplinary Science and Practice in Sport and Exercise Psychology (1978-2000), Period 6: Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology (2000-Present).
Work of Sport Psychologists
The contemporary sport psychologist is expected to fill three primary roles, they are: Research, Teaching and Consulting.
Research: The primary role of any partcipant in tertiary education is to furthur the knowledge in that field. Sport psychologists conduct research in many areas. They may study the arousal levels of athletes before a hockey game, or ask children why they play sport. The findings are then shared with collegues, allowing others to benefit from this research.
Teaching: Many trained sport psychologists are expected to teach in their chosen field, whether it be at a tertiary level or teaching an intern in the field of psychology. This is so the skill is passed on and sport psychology remains strong around the world.
Consulting: The consulting process is very important as one has to consult with individual athletes or team athletes to derive skills to enhance performance levels. Some sport and exercise psychologists work in the fitness industry to design exercise programmes that maximise participation and promote psychological well-being.
Research: The primary role of any partcipant in tertiary education is to furthur the knowledge in that field. Sport psychologists conduct research in many areas. They may study the arousal levels of athletes before a hockey game, or ask children why they play sport. The findings are then shared with collegues, allowing others to benefit from this research.
Teaching: Many trained sport psychologists are expected to teach in their chosen field, whether it be at a tertiary level or teaching an intern in the field of psychology. This is so the skill is passed on and sport psychology remains strong around the world.
Consulting: The consulting process is very important as one has to consult with individual athletes or team athletes to derive skills to enhance performance levels. Some sport and exercise psychologists work in the fitness industry to design exercise programmes that maximise participation and promote psychological well-being.
Sport psychology
Sport psychology (or sports psychology) is the scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport contexts and the practical application of that knowledge. Sport psychologist's identify principles and guidelines that professionals can use to help adults and children participate in and benefit from sport and exercise activities in both team and individual environments. Sports psychologists have two objectives in mind: (a) to understand how psychological factors affect an individual's physical performance and (b) to understand how participation in sport and exercise affects a person's psychological development, health and well-being. Sport psychology deals with increasing performance by managing emotions and minimizing the psychological effects of injury and poor performance. Some of the most important skills taught are goal setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk, awareness and control, concentration, confidence, using rituals, attribution training, and periodization.
Sports engineering
Sports engineering is a field of engineering that involves the design, development and testing of sports equipment. The equipment used by athletes has always gone through technological design and development based on current knowledge and understanding. Sports engineering only became official in 1998 when the Sports Engineering Research Group and the International Sports Engineering Association were formed at the University of Sheffield. Since then, the field has grown immensely and now involves many universities, sports companies, regulatory bodies and sports clubs across the world.
Sports engineers are typically involved in the following activities:
Equipment design: designing and building new equipment based on the requirements of athletes. e.g. racing wheelchair design
Lab experiments and testing: measuring the behaviour of equipment, athletes and their interaction in a controlled environment. e.g. measuring football boot traction
Computational modelling: simulating the forces acting on athletes and their equipment (Finite Element Analysis) or simulating the airflow around equipment (Computational Fluid Dynamics). e.g. football aerodynamic analysis
Field testing: recording the behaviour of sports equipment in a match environment. e.g. high-speed video recording of tennis players hitting the ball
Working with governing bodies: assessing the effects of rule changes or understanding injury risks.
Working with athletes: working together to improve their performance.
Sports engineers come from a range of disciples that are involved with sports. These included sport science disciplines and engineering disciplines involved in the sports industry. Historically they have an MEng degree in Mechanical Engineering or Sports Engineering, and many go on to undertake further research in the form of a PhD. As the sports industry goes progressively high tech electronics engineers have become more involved in the discipline.
The majority of sports engineering research in UK universities is done at Sheffield, Sheffield Hallam, Loughborough, Bath, Strathclyde and Queen Mary’s (London). In Australia an electronics based Sports Engineering degree was launched at Griffith University in 2009
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_engineering"
Sports engineers are typically involved in the following activities:
Equipment design: designing and building new equipment based on the requirements of athletes. e.g. racing wheelchair design
Lab experiments and testing: measuring the behaviour of equipment, athletes and their interaction in a controlled environment. e.g. measuring football boot traction
Computational modelling: simulating the forces acting on athletes and their equipment (Finite Element Analysis) or simulating the airflow around equipment (Computational Fluid Dynamics). e.g. football aerodynamic analysis
Field testing: recording the behaviour of sports equipment in a match environment. e.g. high-speed video recording of tennis players hitting the ball
Working with governing bodies: assessing the effects of rule changes or understanding injury risks.
Working with athletes: working together to improve their performance.
Sports engineers come from a range of disciples that are involved with sports. These included sport science disciplines and engineering disciplines involved in the sports industry. Historically they have an MEng degree in Mechanical Engineering or Sports Engineering, and many go on to undertake further research in the form of a PhD. As the sports industry goes progressively high tech electronics engineers have become more involved in the discipline.
The majority of sports engineering research in UK universities is done at Sheffield, Sheffield Hallam, Loughborough, Bath, Strathclyde and Queen Mary’s (London). In Australia an electronics based Sports Engineering degree was launched at Griffith University in 2009
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_engineering"
Greatest male singles players
A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. No consensus has ever existed, however. By a large margin, an Associated Press poll in 1950 named Bill Tilden as the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century. From 1920-1930, Tilden won singles titles at Wimbledon three times and the U.S. Championships seven times. In 1938, however, Donald Budge became the first person to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during the same calendar year and won six consecutive Grand Slam singles titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge "the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived." And in his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer said that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever. Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tony Trabert has said that of the players he saw before the start of the open era, Kramer was the best male champion.
By the latter half of the 1950s and 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever. Gonzales said about Hoad, "When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique."
During the open era, first Rod Laver and then more recently Björn Borg and Pete Sampras were regarded by many of their contemporaries as among the greatest ever. Cliff Drysdale has said that Laver is the greatest player ever. Mats Wilander said, "The greatest player ever is not necessarily the player who has won the most. I would say that Björn Borg is the greatest player ever because he won Wimbledon five times in a row. And out of those five times, he won the French Open all of those five years, plus another year." Laver has said that Sampras is "equal to anyone who has ever played the game." John McEnroe has said that either Laver or Sampras is the greatest player ever. Roger Federer is now considered by many observers to have the most "complete" game in modern tennis, with the potential to surpass the achievements of these past greats. Many experts of tennis, former tennis players and some of his own tennis peers believe Federer may become the greatest player in the history of the game. The tennis historian Raymond Lee did a statistical analysis account of the question, counting tournament wins totals and percentages of career match wins and wins in a 5 year period. His alltime list ranks Laver ahead of Borg and Tilden (tie), Federer, Gonzales, Rosewall, Budge, Lendl, Connors, Sampras in the top ten.
By the latter half of the 1950s and 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever. Gonzales said about Hoad, "When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique."
During the open era, first Rod Laver and then more recently Björn Borg and Pete Sampras were regarded by many of their contemporaries as among the greatest ever. Cliff Drysdale has said that Laver is the greatest player ever. Mats Wilander said, "The greatest player ever is not necessarily the player who has won the most. I would say that Björn Borg is the greatest player ever because he won Wimbledon five times in a row. And out of those five times, he won the French Open all of those five years, plus another year." Laver has said that Sampras is "equal to anyone who has ever played the game." John McEnroe has said that either Laver or Sampras is the greatest player ever. Roger Federer is now considered by many observers to have the most "complete" game in modern tennis, with the potential to surpass the achievements of these past greats. Many experts of tennis, former tennis players and some of his own tennis peers believe Federer may become the greatest player in the history of the game. The tennis historian Raymond Lee did a statistical analysis account of the question, counting tournament wins totals and percentages of career match wins and wins in a 5 year period. His alltime list ranks Laver ahead of Borg and Tilden (tie), Federer, Gonzales, Rosewall, Budge, Lendl, Connors, Sampras in the top ten.
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